CLASS XII HISTORY QUESTION BANK

THEME : 01
BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES
THE HARAPPAN CIVILISATION
Key concepts in nutshells

Period :- ( I ) Early Harappa culture - Before 2600 BCE

Mature Harappa culture-2600BCE to 1900 BCE (III) Late Harappa culture- After 1900 BCE Extent of Harappan civilisation:-

Northern boundary-Manda Southern Boundary-Daimabad

Eastern boundary- Alamgirpur Western boundary-Sutkagendor Characteristics of the Harappan Civilisation:-

Two Sections:-( I ) The Citadel

( II ) The Lower Town

Carefully planned drainage system.

At burials in Harappan sites the dead were generally laid in pits.

Seals and sealings were used to facilitate long distance communication.

Exchanges were regulated by a precise system of weignts, usually made of a stone called Chert and generally cubical, with no markings.

Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers, whereas other archaeologist feels that there was no single ruler but several rulers.

Several explanation for the decline of Harappan civilisation are Climatic changes, deforestation,

excessive floods, the shifting and/or drying up of rivers. Metals known: - Gold, Silver, Copper, Bronze.

Scripts: - The Harappan scripts are undeciphered. There are 375-400 signs. The script was written from right to left.

Craft: - The place Chanhudaro was totally involved for craft production. There were experts in bead makings, shell cutting, seal making, weight making. Lothal was also one of the important places for craft production.

Modes of Transportation :- Bullock carts and Boats. What do you know about the seals and sealings? (2)

Seals and sealings were used to facilitate longdistance communication. Imagine a bag of goods being sent from one place to another.

Its mouth was tied with rope and on the knot was affixed some wet clay on which one or more seals were pressed, leaving an impression.

If the bag reached with its sealing intact, it meant that it had not been tampered with.
The sealing also conveyed the identity of the sender.



7

Write about the script used by the harappans (4)

Harappan seals usually have a line of writing, probably containing the name and title of the owner.
Scholars have also suggested that the motif conveyed a meaning to those who could not read.
Most inscriptions are short, the longest containing about 26 signs.

Although the script remains undeciphered to date, it was evidently not alphabetical stands for a vowel as it has just too many signs –somewhere between 375 and 400.
The script was written from right to left.

Some seals show a wider spacing on the right and cramping on the left, as if the engraver began working from the right and then ran out of space

Variety of objects on which writing has been found: seals, copper tools, rims of jars, copper and terracotta tablets, jewellery, bone rods, even an ancient signboard

Write about the weight system used by the Harappans (2)

Exchanges were regulated by a precise system of weights, usually made of a stone called chert and generally cubical with no markings.

Lower denominations of weights were binary (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc. up to 12,800), while the Higher denominations followed the decimal system.

The smaller weights were probably used for weighing jewellery and beads. Metal scale-pans have also been found.

Mention the causes of the end of the civilisation (2)

Climatic change, deforestation, excessive floods, the shifting and/or drying up of rivers, to overuse of the landscape.

Some of these “causes” may hold for certain settlements, but they do not explain the collapse of the entire civilisation.
It appears that a strong unifying element, perhaps the Harappan state, came to an end.
This is evidenced by the disappearance of seals, the script, distinctive beads and pottery

Mention the domestic architecture of Harappans.(2)

The Lower Town at Mohenjodaro provides examples of residential buildings. Many were centered on a courtyard, with rooms on all sides.

The courtyard was probably the centre of activities such as cooking and weaving, particularly during hot and dry weather view of the interior or the courtyard.

Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks, with drains connected through the wall to the street drains.

Some houses have remains of staircases to reach a second storey or the roof. Many houses had wells, often in a room that could be reached from the outside and perhaps used by passers-by.







8


Q.1) List the raw materials required for craft production in the Harappan civilisation and discuss how these might have been obtained. (2)

The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable: stones like carnelian (of a beautiful red colour), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metals like copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay.

Two methods of procuring materials for craft production:- (2)
They established settlements such as Nageshwar, Shortughai and Balakot.

They might have sent expeditions to areas such as the Khetri region of Rajasthan (for Copper) and south India (for gold).



Q.2) “Our knowledge about the Indus Valley Civilization is poorer than that of the other Civilizations”. Explain it by your arguments? (2)

Yes, our knowledge about the Indus Valley Civilization is poorer than that of the other because of the following reasons:-
1.The script of that age has hitherto not been deciphered.

The easy method behind seeking knowledge about other Civilizations such as that of Egypt, Mesopatamia, China etc. was the deciphering of their scripts. Scripts is that sole basis through which we can gather through knowledge about the art, literature, customs, dresses, function and religion etc. of any Civilizations

Q.3) what were the confusions in the mind of Cunningham while studying Harappan civilization? (2)

He used the accounts left by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims who had visited the subcontinent between the fourth and seventh centuries CE.
He thought that Indian history began with the first cities in the Ganga valley.

In fact, Cunningham’s main interest was in the archaeology of the Early Historic (c. sixth century BCE-fourth century CE) and later periods.

Q.4) what were the differences in the techniques adopted by Marshall and Wheeler in studying Harappan civilization? (2)

Marshall tended to excavate along regular horizontal units, measured uniformly throughout the mound, ignoring the stratigraphy of the site.

This meant that all the artefacts recovered from the same unit were grouped together, even if they were found at different stratigraphic layers. As a result, valuable information about the context of these finds was irretrievably lost.

R.E.M. Wheeler rectified this problem. Wheeler recognised that it was necessary to follow the stratigraphy of the mound rather than dig mechanically along uniform horizontal lines

Q. 5) “Burials is a better source to trace social differences prevalent in the Harappan civilization”. Discuss. (2)
Studying burials is a strategy to find out social differences.

At burials in Harappan sites the dead were generally laid in pits. Sometimes, there were differences in the way the burial pit was made - in some instances; the hollowed-out spaces were lined with bricks.





 Some graves contain pottery and ornaments, perhaps indicating a belief that these could be used in the afterlife. Jewellery has been found in burials of both men and women.

Q. 6) Write a note on the Drainage system of the Harappans. (2)

One of the striking features of this town was a well planned drainage system. The drains were made of mortar, lime and gypsum. They were covered with big bricks and stones which could be lifted easily to clean the drains. Smaller drains from houses on both the sides of the streets came and joined a brick laid main channel. Bigger drains which cleared the rain water were 2 and half feet to 5 feet in circumference. For sewagefrom the houses, pits were provided at either side of the street. All this shows that the Indus valley people took great care to keep their cities clean.

Q. 7 discuss the functions that may have been performed by rulers in Harappan Society. (4)

Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers and that everybody enjoyed equal status. Others feel there was no single ruler but several.

There are indications of extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts as evident in pottery seals weights and bricks.

Notably bricks though obviously not produced in any single centre were of a uniform ratio throughout the region, from Jammu to Gujarat.

Under the guidance and supervision of the rulers plans and layouts of the city were prepared. Big buildings palaces forts, tanks wells, canals, granaries were constructed.

Roads, lanes and drains were also constructed and cleanliness was maintained under the over all supervision of the ruler.

The ruler might have taken interest in economy of the state or city states. He used to inspire the farmer to increase agricultural production.

He used to motivate the craftsmen to promote different handicrafts. Internal as well as external trade was promoted by the ruler.

He used to issue common acceptable coins or seals, weights and measurements.

During the natural calamity such as flood earthquake, epidemic etc. the ruler used to provide grains and other eatables to the affected people.

He used to play active role to defend cities or state from foreign attack.

Q. 8 How can you say that the Harappan culture was an urban one. (4)

We can say that the Harappan culture was an urban one, due to the following reasons:

The cities were well planned and thickly populated.

The roads were straight and wide.

The houses were made of burnt bricks and contained more than one storey.

Every house had a well and a bathroom.

The drainage system was excellent with house drains emptying into street drains.




The citadel of Harappa had public buildings

Lothal was a dockyard and important trading centre.

After the decline of the Harappan culture, town planning was forgotten and there was absence of city life for about thousands of years.

Q.9) Write a note on the agricultural technology of Harappans. (4)

Ans. Agriculture was the chief occupation of the Harappans. The prevalence of agriculture is indicated by finds of grains. But it is more difficult to reconstruct actual agricultural practices. Archaeologists have found evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan. Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologist extrapolate from this that oxen were used for ploughing. Terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and at Banawali. The field had two sets of furrows at right angles to each other, suggesting that two different crops were grown together. Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where irrigation was probably required for agriculture. Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan. It is also likely that water drawn from wells was used for irrigation. Besides, water reservoirs found in Dholavira may have been used to store water for agriculture.



Q.10) Discuss how archaeologist reconstruct the past. (8)

  Material evidences, allows archaeologists to better reconstruct Harappan life. This material could be pottery, tools, ornaments, household objects, etc. 2. Recovering artefacts is just the beginning of the archaeological enterprise. Archaeologists then classify their finds.

  The second, and more complicated, is in terms of function: archaeologists have to decide whether, for instance, an artefact is a tool or an ornament, or both, or something meant for ritual use.

  An understanding of the function of an artefact is often shaped by its

resemblance with present-day things - beads, querns, stone blades and pots are obvious examples.

  Archaeologists also try to identify the function of an artefact by investigating the context in which it was found

  The problems of archaeological interpretation are perhaps most evident in attempts to reconstruct religious practices.

  Attempts have also been made to reconstruct religious beliefs and practices by examining seals, some of which seem to depict ritual scenes. Others, with plant motifs, are thought to indicate nature worship.

  Many reconstructions of Harappan religion are made on the assumption that later traditions provide parallels with earlier ones. This is because archaeologists often move from the known to the unknown, that is, from the present to the past.

  Remains of crops, saddle querns or pit are studied to identify food.





  Archaelogists observe the different layers of site and try to find out different things which give picture of socio-economic conditions, religions and cultural life of the past people.

THEME - 2
Kings, Farmers and Towns
Early states and economics (C 600 BCE - 600 CE)

Key concept in nut shell

Several developments in different parts of the subcontinent (India) the longspan of 1500 following the end of Harappan Civilization:-

Rigveda was composed along the Indus and its tributaries.
       Agricultural Settlements emerged in several parts of the subcontinent.
       New mode of disposal of the dead like making Megaliths.
  By C 600 BCE growth of new cities and kingdoms.
  600 BCE majorturning point in early Indian history.
  Growth of 16 Mahajanapadas. Many were ruled by kings.
     Some known as ganas or sanghas were oligarchies

  Between the 600 BCE and 400 BCE Magadha became the most powerful Mahajanapada.

Emergence of Mauryan Empire Chandragupta Maurya (C 321 BCE) founder of the empire extended control upto Afghanistan and Baluchistan.
          His grandson Ashoka, the most famous ruler conquered Kalinga.

  Variety of sources to reconstruct the history of the Mauryan Empire - archaeological finds especially sculpture, Ashoka’s Inscriptions, Literary sources like Indica account.

New Notions of Kingship
By C 200 BCE emergence of new chiefdoms and kingdoms in several parts of the subcontinent.
Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas in Tamilakam, known from Sangam text.

Most of these states including Satavahanas and Shakas had control over long distance trade networks.

Kushanas (C First century BCE to first century CE) ruled over a vast kingdom extending from central Asia to North West India.

Their history has been reconstructed from Inscriptions, Coins and sculptures which convey a sense of the notions of kingship.

History of the Guptas (4th century CE ) has been reconstructed from literatures, coins and inscriptions including Prashastis.

What did subjects think about their rulers? Historians have tried to know this by examining stories contained in the Jatakas and Panchatantra.

Strategies for increasing agricultural production - use of plough with iron plough share, introduction of transplantation and use of irrigation through wells, tanks, less commonly canals.

Land grants to religious institutions or Brahmanas, to extend agriculture to new areas or to win allies by making grants of land.
Emergence of urban centres such as Pataliputra, Ujjayani, Puhar, Mathura etc.





In the towns different types of people used to live such as washing folk, weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters, religious teachers, merchants, kings.
Artisans and traders organized themselves in guild or shrenis.
Trade both in the subcontinent and with east and north Africa, West Asia, South East Asia , China.
India used to export spices, fine pearls, ivory, silk cloth, medicinal plants.

Exchanges were facilitated by the introduction of the coinage. Punch marked coins made of silver and copper were amongst the earliest to be minted and used. The first gold coins were issued (CE)by the Kushanas.

James Prinsep an officer in the mint of the East India Company was able to decipher Ashokan Brahmi in 1838.

Limitations of Inscriptional evidence- letters are very faintly engraved, damaged or letter missing, not sure about the exact meaning of the words.

Q.Mention the important features of Magadha Empire.
Magadha (in present-day Bihar) became the most powerful mahajanapada.
Magadha was a region where agriculture was especially productive.
Iron mines were accessible and provided resources for tools and weapons.
Elephants, an important component of the army, were found in forests in the region.
The Ganga and its tributaries provided a means of cheap and convenient communication.
1. What are megaliths? 2

Ans) a- Megaliths were elaborate stone structures in central and south India in first millennium BCE. b- These were kept on the burials. Dead were buried with a wide range of iron tools and weapons. 2. Why six century BCE often considered as a major turning point in Indian history?2

It is an era associated with early states and cities, growing use of iron, the development of coin.
It also witnessed the growth of diverse system of thoughts including Buddhism and Jainism.

3. Define Dhamma Mahamatta? 2
Ans) a- Special officers appointed by Ashoka.
b- Appointed to spread the message of Dhamma.

Write any two sources of Mauryan history? A. Arthashastra of Kautilya.

B. Ashoka’s inscriptions.
5. Who were Kushanas? 2
a- Kushanas were a clan of nomadic people living in China.
b- Kushanas ruled over a vast kingdom extending from Central Asia to North-West India.
c- First to issue gold coins in India.

In which languages and script, Ashokan script was written? 2 a- Language- Prakrit, Aramaic and Greek.
b- Script- Prakrit in Brahmi, Greek , Aramaic and Kharosthi.

Who was a Gahapati? 2
Gahapati was the owner, master or head of a household.
 He was the owner of the resources- land, animals and other things that belonged to the household.



Short Questions (4 Marks each)

Discuss factors responsible for the rise of Magadha – 4
Powerful rulers- Bimbisara and Ajatasattu
Availability of iron.
Fertile soil
Availability of elephants in forest.
Strong capital - Rajgir and Pataliputra


Describe five features of Mahajanapadas? 4
Maximum Mahajanapadas ruled by kings but some ruled by Ganas or Sanghas.
Each had its own capital often fortified.
Permanent army recruited from the peasantry regular bureaucracies.

•

and tributes from people.

Explain main features of Ashoka’s Dhamma? 4
Respect to elders, love for young and kindness to servants.
Religious tolerance to other religions.
Liberal policies towards Brahmanas, Shramanas.
Appointment of Dhamma mahamattas.

Important changes in agriculture during the period between 600 BCE to 600 CE . 4
For increase of agricultural production use of plough with iron tipped ploughshare.
Introduction of transplantation of crop (paddy).
Irrigation by wells, ponds and canals.

Hoe agriculture in semi-arid parts of Punjab, Rajasthan and hilly tracks in North-Eastern and Central Parts.

Land lords and heads of village were more powerful and had control over farmers.
Land grants by kings to extend agriculture to new areas.

How do inscription help in reconstruction of history? 4
Knowledge about the rulers and their achievements.
Scripts and language of that time.

•

Extent of the empire.
Social and religious condition of kingdom

Main features of Mauryan administration? 8

Central administration- King had control over legislative, executive, judiciary, army and finance.
Provincial administration- The Empire was divided in to many provinces.





Local Government- There was a committee of 30 members to maintain rules and regulations in Pataliputra.

•

in the empire .
Law and order system setup.
Organised army- a committee with sixsubcommittee for coordinating military activity.
To spread Dhamma, appointment of Dhamma Mahamattra.
Officers were oppointed to manage the land revenue, irrigation and roads
Institution of spies was very strong and working effectively.

Source based questions:-

Read the following passage and answer the questions given below:
What the king’s officials did?

Here is an excerpt from the account of Megasthenes:

Of the great officers of state, some … superintend the rivers, measure the land, as is done in Egypt, and inspect the sluices by which water is let out from the main canals into their branches, so that every one may have an equal supply of it. The same persons have charge also of the huntsmen, and are entrusted with the power of rewarding or punishing them according to their deserts. They collect the taxes, and superintend the occupations connected with land; as those of the woodcutters, the carpenters, the blacksmiths, and the miners.

Q.1-Explain the duties of the officers of state. 3

Some superintended the rivers, measured lands and inspected the sluices by which water was let out from the main canals into their branches, so that everyone would have an equal supply of it.

They had also charge of huntsmen, entrusted with the power of rewarding or punishing them according to their deserts.

They collected the taxes, and superintended the occupations connected with land; as those of the woodcutters, the carpenters, the blacksmiths, and the miners.

Q2. Explain the role of the sub-committees for coordinating military activities.
Megasthenes mentioned a committee with six subcommittees for coordinating military activity.

They looked after navy, transport and provisions, foot soldiers, horses, chariots and elephants.1

The second committee had to arrange bullock carts to carry equipments procure food for soldiers and fodder for animals and recruit servants and artisans to look after the soldiers.

Q3. What did Ashoka do to hold his empire together? 2
Ashoka tried to hold his empire together by propagating dhamma.
 Special officers called dhamma mahamattas were appointed to spread the message of dhamma.

Sources to know out about the Mauryas (4)
Historians have used a variety of sources to reconstruct the history of the Mauryan Empire.

These include archaeological finds, especially sculpture and the contemporary works, such as the account of Megasthenes which survives in fragments.

Another source that is often used is the Arthashastra, parts of which were probably composed by Kautilya or Chanakya,

The Mauryas are mentioned in Buddhist, Jaina and Puranic literature, as well as in Sanskrit Literary works.

The inscriptions of Asoka on rocks and pillars are regarded as amongst the most valuable sources.

Describe the life of the Urban populations (4)

The ruling elites lived in fortified cities.

It is difficult to conduct extensive excavations at most sites because people live in these areas even today a wide range of artefacts have been recovered from them.

These include fine pottery bowls and dishes, with a glossy finish, known as Northern Black Polished Ware, probably used by rich people, and ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, figurines, made of a wide range of materials – gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell and terracotta.

We find inscriptions in a number of cities. These mention the name of the donor, her occupation as well.

They tell us about people who lived in towns: washing folk, weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, and blacksmiths.

How Are Inscriptions Deciphered? (4)

Deciphering Brahmi

Most scripts used to write modern Indian languages are derived from Brahmi, the script used in mostAsokan inscriptions.

Scholars who studied early inscriptions sometimes assumed these were in Sanskrit, although the earliest inscriptions were, in fact, in Prakrit.

It was only after decades of painstaking investigations by several epigraphists that James Prinsep was able to decipher Asokan Brahmi in 1838.









16

Historical evidence from inscriptions

 To find out how epigraphists and historians work, we look at two Asokan inscriptions more closely.

2.The name of the ruler, Asoka, is not mentioned in the inscription What is used instead are titles adopted by the ruler – devanampiya, often translated as “beloved of the gods” and piyadassi, or

“pleasant tobehold

Historians have to constantly assess statements made in inscriptions to judge whether they are true, exaggerations.

Asokan inscription which has often been interpreted as reflecting the anguish of the ruler, as well as marking a change in his attitude towards warfare.

Divine Kings

One means of claiming high status was to identify with a variety of deities.

The notions of kingship they wished to project are perhaps best evidenced in their coins and sculpture.

The statues of Kushana rulers have been found installed in a shrine at Mat near Mathura

Similar statues have been found in a shrine in Afghanistan as well. Some historians feel this indicates that the Kushanas considered themselves godlike.

Rulers adopted the title devaputra, or “son of god”, possibly



Many states were depended on samantas, men who maintained themselves through local resources including control over land. . Many Kushana

They offered homage and provided military support to rulers. Powerful samantas could become kings: conversely, weak rulers might find themselves being reduced to positions of subordination


THEME 3
KINSHIP, CASTE AND CLASS IN EARLY SOCIETIES
(600 BC-600CE)

Key concepts in nutshell

Many rules and different practices were followed by the people.

Very often families were part of larger networks of people we define as relatives. Blood relations can be defined in many different ways.

Mausmriti is considered the most o important Dharma Sutra and Dharmashastra. It was compiled between 200 BCE and 200 CE. This laid down rules governing social life.

During Mahabharata age gotras were considered very important by higher verna of societies.
Social differences prevailed and integration took place within the framework of caste system.
According to the sutras only Kashtriyas could be a king.
The original version of Mahabharata is in Sanskrit.
It contains vivid descriptions of battles forest, palaces and settlements.

Finding out aboutfamilies

 Familyvaries in terms of numbers of members, their relationship with one another as well as the kinds of activities they share.

 People belonging to the same family share food and other resources, and live, work and perform rituals together.

 Families are usually parts of larger networks of people defined as relatives, or to use a more technical term, kinfolk.

 While familial ties are often regarded as “natural” and based on blood, they are defined in many ways.
 Historians also investigate and analyse attitudes towards family and kinship.

The ideal of patriliny
Patriliny means tracing descent from father to son, grandson and so on.
Matriliny is the term used when descent is traced through the mother.

The concern with patriliny was not unique to ruling families. It is evident in mantras in ritual texts suchas the Rigveda.

It is possible that these attitudes were shared by wealthy men and those who claimed high status, including Brahmanas.


4 marks Questions

Q1Critically examine the duties as laid down inManusmriti for the chandalas.

Ans-They had to live outside the village.



They had to use discarded utensils.

To dispose off the bodies.

They could not walk in villages and cities.

Q2 In what ways was the Buddhist theory of a social contract different from the Brahmanical view of society derived from the Purusha sukta.

Ans -1)Four varnas emerged from purushaSukta.

Brahmanas ,kshatriya,vaishya and shudra.

Brahmanas supreme

The Buddhist did not accept this concept.

Q3. Why Mahabharata is considered a colossal epic?

The Mahabharata is a colossal epic running over 100,000 verses with depictions of social categories and situations.

It was composed over a period of about 1,000 years (c. 500 BCE onwards)

Some of the stories it contains may have been in circulation even earlier.

The central story is about two sets of warring cousins.

The text also contains sections laying down norms of behaviour for various social groups. Occasionally (though not always), the principal characters seem to follow these norms.

Q.4 What were three strategies adopted by the Brahmins for enforcing Social norms?

The Brahmanas evolved two or three strategies for enforcing these norms.

One was to assert that the Varna order was of divine origin.

Second, they advised kings to ensure that these norms were followed within their kingdoms.

And third, they attempted to persuade people that their status was determined by birth. However, this was not always easy. So prescriptions were often reinforced by stories told in the Mahabharata and other texts.



Q5.How new jatis were grouped?

Whenever Brahmanical authorities encountered new groups – for instance, people living in forests such as the nishadas – or wanted to assign a name to occupational categories such as the goldsmith or suvarnakara, which did not easily fit into the fourfold varna system, they classified them as a jati.

Jatis which shared a common occupation or profession were sometimes organised into shrenisor guilds.

Q6 .Explain different social dimensions propounded by historians from the central episode of Draupadi’s marriage in the Mahabharata

One of the most challenging episodes in the Mahabharatais Draupadi’s marriage with the Pandavas, an instance of polyandry that is central to the narrative.

If we examine the section of the epic, it is evident that the author(s) attempted to explain it in a variety of ways.

1. Present-day historians suggest that polyandry may have been prevalent amongst ruling elites at some point of time.


 Polyandry gradually fell into disfavour amongst the Brahmanas, who reworked and developed the text through the centuries.

 Some historians note that the practice of polyandry may have seemed unusual or even undesirable from the Brahmanical point of view.

 Others suggest that there may have been a shortage of women during times of warfare, and this led to polyandry. In other words, it was attributed to a situation of crisis.

 Some early sources suggest that polyandry was not the only or even the most prevalent form of marriage.

The reason for the authors to choose to associate this practice with the central characters of the Mahabharata is that creative literature often has its own narrative requirements and does not always literally reflect Social realities.

8 Mark Questions.

Q1The Mahabharata is a good source to study the social value of ancient times. Prove it.

Ans1)-The Mahabharata gives a vivid discription.

2) Emphasized patriliny succession.

It reinforces the relation between the caste and the occupation.

Vivid discription of the caste system and interrelation.

Provides evidence to patriarchal society.

Kanyadan was considered an important religious duty of the father.

Different types of marriage were practised.

Elders were dominating.




Q2) How important were gender differences in earl y societies? Give reasons for your answer.

Ans1) Patriliny: The family system was patriliny which means tracing decent from father to son.

Rule of Marriage: Daughter had no claims to the resources of the father.

Gotra of Women: Women were expected to give up their father’s gotra.

Desire of sons: Desires for sons was quite common.

Q.3. How rules of marriage were followed in early societies?

Sons were important for the continuity of the patrilineage, daughters were viewed rather differently within this framework and marrying them into families outside the kin was considered desirable. Kanyadanaor the gift of a daughter in marriage was an important religious duty of the father. The Brahmanas laid down certain codes of social behaviour in great detail.

From c. 500 BCE, these norms were compiled in Sanskrit texts known as the Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras.

The most important of such works was the Manusmriti
The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras recognised as many as eight forms of marriage. Of these, the

first four were considered as “good” while the remaining were condemned. It is possible that these were practised by those who did not accept Brahmanical norms.

Women were expected to give up their father’s gotra and adopt that of their husband.

But the members of the same gotra could not marry.

The Satavahana women’s names derived from father’s gotras .Some of the Satavahana rulers were polygynous (that is, had more than one wife). Such marriages amongst kinfolk (such as cousins) ensured a close-knit community.


THEME -4
Thinkers Belief and Buildings Culture Development
(600 BCE - 600 CE)
Key concepts in nutshell

 Buildings of sanchi Kannakkheda are the most wonderful ancient buildings in the state of Bhopal.

 Buddhist, Jaina and Brahamanical text, monument and inscription are the some of the important historical sources of the age of C 600 BCE-600CE.

 Many was provided by rulers of Bhopal, Shahjahan Begum and her successor Sultan Jahan Begum to preserved the ancient sites.

 The Rigveda is a collection of hymns, praise of many deities like Agni, Indra, Soma etc.

 The basic philosophy of Jainism already existed in north India even before the birth of vardhamana Mahaveera.

 Tha Bhuddha was the most influential teachers of his times.
 Two traditions were including in modern Hinduism - Vaishnavism and Shaivism.

QUESTIONS ANSWER -

Q1. Mention four places associated with the life of the Buddha. 2

Lumbini (birthplace of the Buddha)

Kapilvastu (the Buddha was brought up here)

Bodh Gaya ( the Buddha attained enlightenment here)

Sarnath- (the Buddha delivered his first religious discourse here).

Q2. What do you mean by Tri -ratna? 2

According to Jainism, Moksha or salvation can be attained by observing Tri- ratna or three jewels. This are-

Right knowledge

Right faith

Right action.

Q3. Into how many categories the religious sects that originated during the 6th century B.C. can be divided? 2

The religious sects of the 6th century. B.C. can be divided into two categories:

The faiths which were openly against Vedic religion,

The faiths which did not oppose Vedic religion openly but propagated new principles venerating one or the other old divinity.







Q4. What do you mean by “Dharma Chakra Pravartana”? 2

Dharma Chakra Pravartana means ‘sitting in motion the wheel of Dharma’. The first religious discourse or sermon delivered by Mahatma Buddha after attaining enlightenment at Mrig dav or Deer Park of Sarnath near Varanasi , is known as ‘ Maha chakra Pravartana’.

Q5. Mention the various incarnatins of Vishnu according to Vaishnavism. 2

According to Vaishnavism there are ten incarnations of Vishnu. These are: Matsya , Kurma, Varsha, Narsimha, Vamana, Parsurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha, and Kalki.

Q6. Mention the teachings of Mahatma Buddha? 4

According to Buddhist philosophy the world is transient ( anicca) and constantly changing it is also soulless (anatta) as there is nothing permanent or eternal in it.

Within this transient world, sorrow is intrinsic to human existence. It is by following the path of moderation between severe penance and self indulgence that human beings can rise above these worldly troubles.The Buddha regarded the social world as the creation of humans rather than of divine origin. According to Buddhist tradition, his last words to his followers were: “Be lamps unto yourselves as all of you must work out your own liberation”.

Q7. What was the Budha Sangha? Discuss its characteristics. 4

Budha founded organization of monks called “Sangha”.

These monks served as teachers of “Dhamma”. They believed a simple life.

They possessed only the essential things which were required for their survival.

Earlier only men were allowed to joined the ‘Sangha’, later on the women were allowed for admission to the Sangha.

All the members were regarded as equal in the Sangha.

Q8. How Buddhist text were prepared and preserved? 4

The Buddha used to give teachings through debate and discussion. Men, Women and children attended these discussions and discussed what they heard. None of his teachings were written down during his life time. After his death, his followers called a council of elders at Vaishali. This council compiled all of his teachings. These complications were known as Tripitaka which literally means the tree baskets to hold different types of text. Firstly they were transmitted orally and then written and classified according to their subject matter and length. When Bhuddism spread to new lands like Srilanka, other texts like Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa were written. Many Pilgrims like FaXian and Xuan Zang carried Buddhist texts with them to disseminate the teachings of Buddha.








Q9. Discuss how and why Stupas were built? (4+4)=10

Inscription found on the railings and pillars of stupas record donations made for building and decorating them.

Some donations were made by kings such as the Satavahanas; others were made by guilds,

Such as that of the ivory workers who financed part of one of the gateways at Sanchi.

Hundreds of donations were made by women and men who mention their names.

Sometimes adding the name of the place from where they came, as well as their occupations and names of their relatives.

Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis also contributed towards building these monuments.

Stupas were built for many resons -

There were other placestoo that were regarded as sacred. This was because relics of the Buddha such as his bodily remains or object used by him were buried there. These were mounds known as stupas.

The tradition of erecting stupas may have been pre- Buddhist, but they came to be associated with Buddhism.

Since they contained relics regarded as sacred, the entire stupa came to be venerated as an emblem of both the Buddha and Buddhism.

By the second century, a number of stupas, including those at Bharhut , Sanchi and Sarnath had been built.

PASSAGE BASED QUESTIONS

Q10. Read the given passage carefully and answer the question that follows-

Why was Stupa’s built? 7 marks

“This is an excerpt from the Mahaparinibbana Sutta, part of the Sutta Pitaka: As the Buddha lay dying, Ananda asked him: “What are we to do Lord, with remains of the Tathagata (another name for the Buddha)?”

The Buddha replied: “Hinder not yourselves Ananda by honouring the remains of the Tathagata. Be zealous, be intent on your own good.”

But when pressed further, the Buddha said: “At the four crossroads they should erect a thupa (Pali for stupa) to the Tathagata. And whosever shall there place garlands or perfume …. or make a salutation

there, or become in its presence calm of heart, that shall long be to them for a profit and joy.”

Questions -

Q1. What are the Stupas? Who advised the Ananda to build the Stupa?

The Stupa was the sacred places. They preserved the relics of the Buddha shch as his bodily remains or the objects used by him. All these things were buried in the stupas.





Q2. From which chapter has this excerpt been taken? It is a part of which book?
1

This excerpt has been taken from the “Mahaparinibbhana Sutta.” It was a part of the “Sutta Pitaka.”

Q3.Who was the Tathagata? What had he told about the importance of the stupa?4

Tathagata was another name for the Buddha. He told Ananda that the honour to his worldly remains was not important. He laid stress on the importance of one’s good deeds. The stupas should be erected on the holy places. If anybody placed garlands or perfume or saluted them, he will not only get the peace of mind but also profit and joy.

Q4. Name any three places where the Stupas have been built. 2

The stpas were built at many places. The most important stupas existed at Bharhut, Sanchi and Sarnath.

THEME-5

THROUGH THE EYES OF TRAVELLERS
Key concepts in nutshell

Al-Biruni was born in Khwarizm in present day Uzbekistan.
Sultan Mahmud attacked Khawrizm and took Al-Biruni to his capital Ghazni.
Al-Biruni wrote “Kitab-ul-Hind” also known as “Tahkik-a-Hind”

Ibn-Battuta’s travelling account “Rihla” gives very interesting information of social and cultural life of India.

Ibn-Battuta’s attacked by bands of robbers several times.
Whatever Bernier saw in India compared it with European condition.
Al-Biruni discussed several “barriers”.
Ibn-Battuta wrote that Indian agriculture was very productive.

Ibn-Battuta’s was greatly amazed by looking at the postal system. Bernier compared India with contemporary Europe.

Bernier critically wrote his account “Travels in the Mughal empire”.

Around 15% population in 17th century lived in towns in India.

Bernier called Mughal cities as “camp town”, which were dependent upon imperial protection for their survival.

Bernier’s description influenced western theorists like Montesquieu.
 AL-BIRUNI AND THE KITAB –UL-

 1.2 THE KITAB –UL –HIND :
 I. Al-Biruni’s Kitab- ul- Hind written in Arabic.

 II. It is voluminous text, divided into 80 chapters on subjects such as religion and philosophy, festival, astronomy, manners and customs, social life, weight.
2.MAKING SENSE OF AN ALIEN WORLD AL-BIRUNI AND THE SANSKRIT IC TRADITION






2.1. OVERCOMING BARRIERS TO UNDERSTANDING

I. The language, Sanskrit was so different from Arabic and Persian that ideas and concept could not be easily translated from one language into another.

Different in religious beliefs and practices.elf –absorption and consequent insularity of the local population.

III. He depended almost on the works of Bramanas, often citing passages from the Vedas ,the Puranas ,the Bhagavatd Gita,
IV. The works of Patanjali, the Manusmriti etc provided an understanding of Indian society.

2.2 AL-BIRUNI’S DESCRIBTION OF THE CASTE SYSTEM
I. Al-Biruni tried to explain the caste system by looking for parallels in other societies.
II. He suggested that social divisions were not uniqueto India

III. He pointed out that within islam all men were conserded equal, differing only in their observance of piety.
IV. He disapproved the notion of pollution.

V. He remarked that everything that falls into a state of impurity strives and succeeds in regaining its original condition of purity.
VI. He was appointed as the qazi or judge of Delhi in 1333.

VII. In 1342 he went to China as the Sultan’s envoy to the Mongol ruler.

VIII. He went to Malabar Coast through central India and later to Sri Lanka

IX. According to him it took 40 days to travel from Multan to Delhi and 50 days from Sindh to Delhi, 40 days from Daulatabad to Delhi, Gwalior to Delhi 10 days.

4.1 The coconut and the paan

I. Two kinds of plants that were unfamiliar to his audience were coconut and paan.

II. He had compared coconut with that of Palm; they look exactly the same except that the one produces dates and the bears the nuts as its fruits.

III. He describes the paan as a tree which is cultivated in the same manner as the grape wine.

4.2 Lbn Battuta and Indian cities

I. He founded the cities in the subcontinent with full of exciting opportunities foe those who had the necessary drive, resources and skills.

II. They were densely populated and prosperous.

III. Most cities had crowed streets and bright and colourful markets with wide variety of goods.

IV. He describes Delhi as a vast city, with a great population, the largest in India V. Daulatabad was equal in size of Delhi.

VI. The bazaars were not only places of economic transactions, but the hub of social and cultural activities.

VII. Most bazaars had a mosque and a temple and space were marked for public performances by dancers, musicians and singers.

VIII. He found Indian agriculture very productive because of the fertility of soil.







4.3 A unique system of communications

I. The state evidently took special measures to encourage merchants

II. All trade routes were well supplied with inns and guest houses

He was amazed by the efficiency of the postal system which allowed merchants to not only send information and remit credit across long distances, but also to dispatch goods required at short notice.

5. FRANCOIS BERNIER

5.1 A DOCTOR WITH A DIFFERENCE

I. He was a Frenchman, adoctor, political philosopher and historian.

He came to the Mughal court in search of opportunities III. He was in India for 12 years from 1656to 1668.

IV. He was closely associated to the Mughal court as a physician to Prince Dara Shukoh the eldest son of Shah Jahan.

5.2 Comparing “East “and “West“

I. He travelled to several parts of the country and wrote accounts of what he saw and comparing India with the situation in Europe.

He dedicated his major writing to the king of France.

5.3. The question of landownership

I. According to Bernier one of the fundamental differences between Mughal India and Europe was the lack of private property in land.

II. He believed in the virtues of private property and saw crown ownership of land as harmful for both the state and its people.

III. The empire owned all the land and distributed it among his nobles who had disastrous consequences for the economy and society.

5.4. A more complex social reality

I. He felt that artisans had no incentive to improve the quality of their manufactures.

II. The profit was appropriated by the state.

A vast quantities of the world’s precious metal flowed into India, as manufactures were exported in exchange for gold and silver.

IV. He also noticed the existence of prosperous merchant community, engaged in long –distance exchange.

V. Merchants often had strong community or kin ties and were organized into their own caste –cum occupational bodies.

Q.1 Name any two travellers who came India during the medieval period (11th to 17th C)? 2 Ans.1. Al Biruni (11th Century) from Uzbekistan

Ibn-Battuta (14th Century) from North western Africa, Morocco.



3. Francois Bernier (17th Century) from France.

Q.2 What was the Al-Biruni’s objective to came India? 2

Ans. (1) To help those who want to discuss religious questions with them.

(2) As a repertory of information to those who want to associate with them.


Q.3Do you think Al-Biruni depended only on Sanskrit texts for his information and understanding of Indian society? 2

Yes, Al-Biruni depended almost exclusively on the work of Brahmanas, often citing passages from the Vedas the Purana, the Bhagavad Gita the works of Patanjali the Manusmriti etc., to provide an understanding of Indian society.

Q.4 Name the Plants found in India which amazed Ibn-Battuta. 2

Coconut - He wrote that the nuts of coconut resemble a man’s head. Paan - He wrote about Paan that the betel has no fruit and is grown only for the sake of his leaves...

Q5.What was the more complex social reality which Bernier’s notice in the Mughal Empire? 2

He felt that artisans had not incentive to improve the quality of their manufacturers because profits were appropriated by the state. Thus production was on the verge of decline.

At the same time, he conceded that vast quantities of the world’s precious metals (gold & silver) flowed into India in exporting manufactures.


Q.6.What were the “barriers” discussed by Al-Biruni that obstructed him in understanding India?2 Following were the barriers he faced in understanding India -

Problems of Language - According to him, Sanskrit was so different from Arabic and Persian that ideas and concept could not be easily translated from one language.

Difference of religion beliefs and practices - He was Muslim and his religious beliefs and practices were quit different from India.

Self-absorption and insularity of the local population - According to him the third barrier was the isolation policy of the Indians.

Q7. According to Bernier, What were the evils-effects of the crown ownership of land? 4

  Absence of ownership of land, landholders could not pass on their land to their children. Thus they didn’t take any interest in increasing production.

It prevented the emergence of the “improving” landlords.

It led to the ruination of agriculture.

It brought a continuous decline in the living standard of all sections of society.

It led to the excessive oppression of the peasantry.



Q8. What did Bernier write about the Sati system? 5

It was a cruel practice in which the widow was made to sit the pyre of her husband alive.

She was forced to be sati.

  The people had no sympathy even for the child widows.

(iv)The cries of the women going to be a sati did not move anyone.

(v) The Brahmans and the elderly women of the house participated in this practice.

Q9. Who wrote ‘Kitab-ul-Hind’? Throw light in its main features? 4

The book ‘Kitab-ul-Hind’ was written by Al-Biruni. Its main features are -

It is written in Arabic.

Its language is simple and lucid.

It is written on the subject such as regional, philosophy, astronomy, social life, laws etc.

It is divided into 80 chapters.

Each chapter begins with a question and than description has given based in Sanskritic traditions.


Q10. Analyze the evidence for slavery provided Ibn-Battuta. 8 According to Ibn-Battuta -

Slaves like any other commodity, were openly sold in the markets.

They were also regularly exchanged as gifts.

3. When Ibn-Battuta reached Sindh, he purchased horses, camels and slaves. He wanted to

offer them as gifts to sultan Muhammad Bin Tuglaq.

4. When he reached to Multan, he presented salves and horses with almonds and raisins to the

Governor of Multan.

5. Ibn-batuta says that Muhammad bin Tughlaq was so happy with the sermon of a preacher

named Nasiruddin that he gave him”ahundred thousand tankas and two hundred slaves.

6. The sultan employed female slaves in his service and also to keep a watch  on his nobles.

The slaves were also engaged for domestic work. But they were given low wages.

Ibn-Battuta found their services particularly indispensable for carrying women and men on palanquins or dola.

It appears from Ibn-Battuta’s account that there were considerable differentiations among slaves.

Some female slaves in the service of the sultan were experts in music and dance.

Source based Questions

THE SYSTEM OF VARNAS 7

This is Al-Biruni’s account of the system of varnas: The highest caste is the Brahmana, of whom the books of the Hindus tell us that they were created from the head of Brahman. And as the Brahman is only another name for the force called nature, and the head is the highest part of the



29

……body, the Brahmana are the choice part of the whole genus. Therefore, the Hindus consider

them as the very best of mankind.

The next caste is the Kshatriya who was created, as they say, from the shoulders and hands of Brahman.

Their degree is not much below that of the Brahmana. After them follow the Vaishya, who were created from the thigh of Brahman. The Sudra who were created from his feet. Between the latter two classes there is no very great distance. Much, however, as these classes differ from each other, they live together in the same towns and villages, mixed together in the same houses and lodgings.

 Explain Al-Biruni’s account of the system of varnas. 1

 Do you consider this type of division justified? Explain with reasons.2

 How was the system not quit rigid in the real life? Explain.4

Ans. (i) According to Al-Biruni, the higher caste is the Brahmana who were created from the head of brahaman. Hindus consider them as the very best of mankind.The second caste is the Kshatriya who was created from the shoulders and hands of Brahman. They are followed by the vaishya, who are created from the thigh of Brahman. Last caste was the Shudra who were created from his feet.


No, such type of division is not justified because no one is high or low by birth. Men became high or low by hisown karma.


(iii) It is right that this system was not quite rigid in the real life because these castes live together in the same towns and villages, mixed together in the same house and lodgings.

12. ON HORSE AND ON FOOT

This is how Ibn Battuta described the postal system: 7

In India the postal system is of two kinds: The horse-post called ‘Uluq’ is run by royal horses stationed at distance of every four miles. The foot-

post has three stations permit. It is called ‘dawa’, that is, one third of a mile ….. Now, at every third

of a mile there is well populated village, outside which are three pavilions in which sit men with girded loins ready to start. Each of them carries a rod, two cubits in length with copper bells at the top. When the courier starts from the city, he holds the letter in one hand and the rod with its bells on the other; and he runs as fast as he can. When the men in the pavilion hear the ringing of bell they get ready. As soon as the courier reaches them one of them takes the letter from his and runs at the top speed shaking the rod all the while until he reaches the next dawa. And the same process continues till the letter reaches its destination. This foot-person is quicker than the horse-post; and often it is used to transport the fruit of Khurasan which are much desired in India.

Name the two kinds of postal System.

Explain how the foot post worked.

30

Why does Ibn-Battua think that the postal system in India was efficient?

How did the State encourage merchants in the 14th century?

 There were two kinds of postal system - the horse postal system and the postal system on foot.

 In the postal service on foot, there were three stages. They were called the Dawa. It was one-third part of a mile. There was a village with dense population at a distance of every three mile. There were three centres outside it. The people used to sit in these centres to start their work. Each one of them had a long rod having copper bells at its top. Whenever a messenger started his journey, he held the letter in one land and this rod with copper bells in the other hand. He would run very fast. The people sitting in the camps at once got ready when they heard the sound of the bell. As soon as the messenger reached the camp, one of the people would take the letter and run away at full speed shaking the rod. This process continued till the letter reached its destination.

 According to Ibn Battuta, The journey from Sindh to Delhi was completed in fifty days. On the other hand, all the information’s given by the detectives reached the king within five days; Ibn

Battuta was quite amazed at their efficiency of the detectives reached the king within five days. (iv)In the 14th century, the state took special steps to encourage the traders. For Example, all the trade routes had serais and rest houses.



THEME - 6

BHAKTI-SUFI TRADITIONS

CHANGES IN RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND DEVOTIONAL TEXTS

(08TH TO 18TH CENTURY)

Key concepts in nutshell


From 8th to 18th century striking feature was a visibility of wide range of gods& goddesses in sculpture & text.

There was integration of cults - composition, compilation & presentation of puranic texts in simple Sanskrit verses.

Explicitly meant to be accessible to women and shurdas who were generally excluded from vedic learning.

Tantric forms of worship - more prevalent among women. Often associated with the goddess were forms of worship that were classifies as Tantric. Tantric practices were widespread in several parts of the subcontinent they were open to women and men, and practitioners often ignored differences of caste and class within the ritual context.

Bhakti traditions classified into saguna (with athesist) and nirguna (without from attracts worship of abstract form)

The Alvars and Narayanars of Tamilnadu - The worshippers of Vishnu and Nayanars - devotees of Shiva - common features - traveled singing hymns in Tamil.




Alvars & nayanars initiated movement against caste system & dominance of Brahamans. Nalayiradivyaprabandanam - important composition of Alvars equal to four Vedas.

Status of women - composition of Andal (a women Alvar) popular, songs of Karaikkal Ammaiyar - were widely sung.

State patronage in south for Vedic gods rather than Jainism & Buddhisn, cholas patronized brahamnical tradition, making land grant as to lord shiva at Gangaikonda Cholapuram bronze sculpture of shiva.

Singing of hymns under royal patronage were encountered - Chola ruler Parantaka I consecrated metal image of Appan, Sambandan and sundarar in Shiva emples.


Karnataka saw a new movement under basavanna a brahamana in court of Chalukyan ruler - his followers Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayatd wearers of Linga) - important comminuty to this day - who worship shiva in form of a linga. Of the group of Sufis who migrated to India in the late twelfth century, the Chishtis were the most influential.

By the sixteenth century the shring had become very popular, infact it was the spirited singing of pilgrims bound for Ajmer that inspired Akbar to vist the tomb.

He went there fourteen times, sometimes two or three times a year to seek blessings for new conquests, fulfillment of vows and the birth of sons. He also had a mosque constructed with the composer of the dargah.

Lingayats challenged ida of caste and questiones the theory of rebirth.They encountered remarriage of widows. North India saw the emergence of Rajput states which patronized Brahmans - performed secular & ritual f unction. The Naths, Jogis, siddhas also.

Through guided by ulema, rulers followed a flexible policy granting religious tax exemptions to non Muslims sometimes.

Those who accepted Islam in India accepted in principal the five pillars of faith but these were overlooked with diviation in practice derived from local customs & affiliations (summi, shia) some like in Malabar court adopted local language Sufism - Sufis were critical of dogmatic definitions & scholastic method of interpreting - Quran.

They emphasized interpretation of Quran on basis of personal experiences. Chishtis - were a part of Sufis - hospices of khangah were small room & hall for students to live & pray.

Life in chaisti khangah was like the life of a monastery & catered to all travellers rich or poor.

Shaikh Nizamuddin chishti had many followers.

The practice of visits to dargas gained prominence by 14th century - shrines became very popular.



Also music & dance & mystical chants were performed to movement saw the emergence of poet saint like kabir where every meaning are inverted.



evoke divine ecstasy. The Bhakti poems written in form in which







The message of Baba Guru Nanak is spelt out in his hymns and teachings. These suggest that he advocated a form of nirguna Bhakti.

Guru Nanak’s Hymns in the Adi Granth Sahib called “Gurubani”, are composed in various languages. Mirabai (c. fifteenth – sixteenth centruries) is perhaps the best known woman poet within the

Bhakti traditions.

She defied her husband and did not submit to the traditional role of wife and mother, insistead recognizing Krishna, the avatoar of Vishnu as per lover.

Historaians draw on a variety of sources to reconstruct histories of religious traditions.

Virtually all these religious traditions continue to flourish to date.

02 mark questions:

Q.1 What does Bhakti movement mean? 2

A series of Hindu saints& reformers started religious reform movements which adopted the method of devotion (Bhakti) to achievethe salvation their method of expression of devotion ranged from the routine worship of deities within temple & singing & chanting of devotional composition.

Q.2 Who were Alavars? 2

In southern India the devotees of Vishnu were called Alvars.

Q.3 Give the name of any four well known reformers of Bhakti movement?2 Ramanand swami, Kabir, Guru Nanak dev, Mira Bai.

Q.4 What do you mean by Sufism? 2

The sufis were Muslim saints who left a great impact on the Indian society Sufism originated in Persia.

Q.-5 What is the importance of Murshid in Sufi ideology?

According to Sufism, an individual must have a religious guide (Murshid) through whom he can communicate with god. The pir is a ladder which enables a man to reach the goal of life Devotion to the Murshid is the worship of god.

05 marks questions

Q.6 (a) Describe the causes of the rise of Bhakti movement? 4

Influence of Vaishnavism

Evil practices of the Hindues

Fear of sprit of Islam

Influence of sufi sects

Emergence of great reformers.

Q.7 (b) Describe the main Principal of Bhakti movement?4

Faith in god

Good deeds

33

Universal Brotherhood

Emotional worship

Condemned idol worship

Opposed to the rigidity of caste system

Guru Bhakti

Q.-8(c) Discuss the influences &importance of Bhakti movement? 4

RELIGIOUS EFFECTS

Saked Hinduism

Lowered the prestige of the Brahmins

Checked the propagation of Islam

Emergence of Sikhism

Setback back to Buddhism

SOCIAL & CULTURAL IMPACT

Improvement in the social relation between the Hindus & Muslims

Uplift of lower class

Promoted the spirit of social service

Development of composite art in the society

Enrichment of Literature.

Q.7 What were the main Principle of Sufism? 4

Worship of God

Renunciation of wordly pleasure

Non violence & pacitism

Love of mankind

Importance of Murshid

Principle of Morality

Importance of singing & Dancing in worship of Allah

Q.-8 What were Attitude of the Nayanars & Alavars sects towards the cast? 4

Some historians are of the view that Alvars & Nayanaras started a movement of Protest against the caste system & the dominance of Brahmans are at least made effort to reform them.

This view is supported by the fact, that these Bhakti reformers came from diverse social background some of the belonged to lower classes such as Cultivaters, Artism & untouchahable some of them Barman background. The Alvars & Nayanars claimed that their compositions were as important as the Vedas.








The Tamilsong of the Alvars is marked by such depth of feeling & trupiety that they are looked upon as Vaishnava Vedas. The nayanaras composed their devotional songs with the highest spiritual sentiments & set up shaivism on a strang tooting. These songs are still popular in south India.

Q.-9 Describe the teaching of Kabir? How does he describe the ultimate reality through the poems?

To achieve inward spiritual bliss 6+2=8

Condemnation of empty ritual

To faster harmony between Hinduism & Islam

He believed in one formless God

Rejected both Vedas & Kuran & the supremacy of the Brahmins & Mulas

He opposed the caste system & image worship

He taught the unity of god & the path of love & devotion

He emphasized on bhakti to achieve salvation or Moksha.

Kabir gave different names of ultimate reality. In Islam these include Allah Hazrat, Khuda and pir. He also used terms taken from Vedantic traditions like alakh, nirankar, Brahman and atman.

10. Write a note on the relationship between Sufism and orthodox Islam. 2

-A Relationship between Sufism and Orthodox Islam: By the twelfth century, Sufism had been completely integrated into orthodox Islam as a result of the efforts of al-Ghazzali, Al-hallaj and Ibn at-Arabi. In the Indian context, Sufis meticulously resolved their difference with the Ulema and emphasized the need to follow the sharia.

11. Write a short note on Amir Khusrau as a great artist and scholar. 2

Amir Khusrau and the qaul: Amir Khusrau (1253 – 1325), the great poet, musician and disciple of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya, gave a unique form to the Chishti Sama by introducing the qaul (Arabic word meaning “saying”), a hymn sung at the opening or closing of qawwal. This was followed by Sufi poetry in Persian, Hindavi or Urdu, and sometimes using words from all of these languages. Qawwals those who sing these songs) at the shrine of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya always start their recital with the qaul. Today qawwali performed in shrines all over the subcontinent.

What were the similarities and differences between the be-Shari’ a and ba - Shari’a Sufi traditions?4

A -Meaning of Shari’ a: The Shari’ is the law governing the Muslim community. It is based on the Qur’an and the hadis, traditions of the Prophet including a record of his remembered words and deeds.

Some mystics initiated movements based on a radical interpretation of Sufi ideals. Manny scorned the khangah and took to mendicancy and observed celibacy. They ignored rituals

And observed extreme forms of asceticism. They were known by different names –

Qalandars, Madaris, malangs, Haidaris, etc., Because of their deliberate defiance of the






Shari’s they were often referred to as be – shari’a in contrast to the ba – Shari’ a Sufis who complied with it.

A group of religious minded people called Sufis turned to as criticism and mysticism in

Protest against the growing materialism of the caliphate as a religions and political institution.

The Sufis sought an interpretation of the Qur’ an Sufis on the basis of their personal experiences.

The Sufis tradition which were anti shari’ a (or the law governing the Muslim committee) are called ba – shari’ a. Similarities: Both of Sufi traditions are critical of the dogmatic definitions and scholastic methods of interpretation the Qur’ an and sunna (traditions of the prophet) adopted by theologians. Instead, they laid stress on seeking salvation15 rough devotion and love for God by following His commands, and by following. The example of Prophet Muhammad whom they considered has a perfect human being. In this way we can say that both the traditions of the Sufis i.e. be shari’a and be shari’s are same. They sought and interpretation of the Quran on the basis of

Personal experience.

Theme-7

An imperial capital: Vijayanagar

Some important points to remember

The Rayas, Nayakas and Sultans - Harihara and Bukka asserted their independence of the Delhi sultanate and established the kingdom of vijaynagar on AD 1336.

 Kings and trading class - The warfare depended mainly upon powerful cavalry. The Portuguese settled on the west coast of India in attempted to establish their trading and military stations.

 The climax and decline of Vijay Nagar empire - Krishadeva Raya was

unable administrator, He built dams for irrigation. He builds magnificent places and temples. Its ruler Rama Raya was miserably defeated on the battlefield of (Rakshasi - Tangadi) Talikota in A.D.1565. The victorious armies plundered and destroyed the city of Vijaynagar.

 Vijaynagar Hampi Architecture - The Vijaynagar architecture (Hampi Architecture) of the period (1336-1365) was unique building style evolved by the imperial vijaynagar empire.

 Hampi Bazar - Portuguese traveller’s paes and nuntiz visited hampi in the mid 1500 century. They give an account of hampi Bazar thus “ in this street lived many merchants and there you will find all sorts of rubies, diamonds pearls and cloths that you may wish to buy.

 Building and places - we know today about the vijaynagar palces and buildings are derived from the archeological excavations at Hampi as no royal palace structures have survived.

 Kings royal enclosure - Another important building at Hampi is the kings royal enclosure. Paes tells against the gate there were two circles in which there were the dancing women richly arrayed with many jewels of gold and diamonds and many pearls.

 Mahanavami dibba - The Mahanavami dibba is located on one of the highest points in the city. It is a very large platform rising from a base of about 11000 feet to height of a 40 feet. It seems that is supported a wooden structure.





Forts of Vijay nagar - in the constant struggle for power, fort and fortified settlements were a potent symbol of authority. The rulers of Vijaynagar empire created the cities with the main object of protection against invasions. The city itself was a fortress and designed as such in every manner.

Vijayanagara or “city of victory” was the name of the both a city and an empire. The empire was founded in the fourteenth century.

In 1565 the city was sacked and subsequently deserted.

One of the most prominent water work to be seen among the ruins in the Hiriya canal.

In terms of temple architecture, by this period certain new features were in evidence.

Best exemplified by the raya gopurams or royal gate ways that often dwarfed the towers on the central shrines, and signaled the presence of the temple from a geat distance.

The halls in the temple were used for a variety of purposes.

Buildings that survive tell us about the way spaces were organized and used, how they were built, with what materials and techniques.


Q.1:- Hampi town is located in the bank of which river? 2 It is located on the bank of Tunghbhadra River. Q.2:- Which goddess is called Pampa?2 Goddess Pampa is the name of goddess Parvati.

Q.3:- Who was Colin Mackenzie? Mention his importance in Indian history?2

Colin Mackenzie used to work in British East India Company. He took birth in1754. He is a famous engineer, surveyor and humanist. He became the first Surveyer General of British India in 1815. He died in the year 1821. He began to survey in the traditional culture and historical places of India in order to run administration of Colonial India more smoothly and effectively.

Q.4:- Mention the silent features of the temple of Hampi. 2

The temple of Hampi is well articulated with artistic pillars like structure. Magnificent structure with gallery surrounded with pillars around divinity and the place of god is one of the features of the temples. The main temple of Hampi is Vitthal and Hazareram.

Q.5 How did the water requirements problems solved in Vijayanagar empire?2

The natural reservoir is providing water for Vijayanagar is Tunghabhadra river. This river was situated in the north-east direction of the kingdom. Many rivers from nearby mountain range get merged into this river. Dams were built in almost all tributaries of rivers. Hauz were built in order to cope with the drastic climate in draught situation. This was stored in the beginning of the 15th century. This place was called Kamalapuram water reservoir.

Q:-6 What do you think were the advantages and disadvantages of enclosing agricultural land within the fortified area of the city? 4

There are many advantages and disadvantages of enclosing agricultural land within the fortified area of the Vijayanagara empire.

Abdur Razzaq noted that "between the first, second and third walls there are cultivated fields, gardens and houses.

The detailed statements have been corroborated by present day archaeologists, who have also found evidence of an agricultural tract between the sacred centre and the urban core. We knew different sources that in Vijayanagara empire and other southern kingdom agricultural tracts were incorporated within the fortified areas. Often, the objective of medieval sieges was to strave the defenders into submission. These sieges could last four several months and sometimes even years. Normally rulers tried to be prepared for adverse situations or natural calamities by building large granaries within fortified areas. The rulers of Vijayanagara adopted a more expensive and elaborate strategy of protecting the agricultural belt itself.

Whenever, Kingdom was attacked by the enemies at the time of reaping harvest they could easily brunt the dry crops of the farmers. But these fields were safe in ordinary situation from wild animals.


Q:-7 What do you think was the significance of the ritual's associated with the Mahanavami dibba?4

The importance of the rituals associated with the Mahanawami dibba. Located on one of the highest points in the city, the "Mahanawami dibba" is a massive platform rising from a base of about 11000 sq.ft. to a height of 40 feet. Rituals associated with the structure probably coincided with Mahanawami (Literally the great ninth day) of the ten-day Hindu festival during the autumn months of September and October, known variously as Dushehra (northern India), Durga Puja (in Bengal) and Navaratri or Mahanawami (in Peninsular India). The Vijayanagara kings displayed their prestige, power and suzerainty on this occasion.

The ceremonies performed on the occasion included worship of the image, worship of the state horse, and the sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals. 2. Dancer, wrestling matches, and processions of caparisoned horses, elephants and chariots and soldiers, as well as ritual presentations before the king and his guests by the chief nayakas and subordinate kings marked the occasion.

These ceremonies were imbued with deep symbolic meanings on the last day of the festival the king inspected his army and the armies of the nayakas in a grand ceremony in an open field. On this occasion the nayakas brought rich gifts for the king as well as the stipulated tribute.


Q8:- What impression of the lives of the ordinary people of Vijayanagara can you cull from the various descriptions in Vijayanagara Empire.4

Ans. Ordinary people of this empire scope different languages and followed different religious tradition. There were small traders and local merchant use to live in cities, trade centre, port




town and villages. Peasants, workers, slaves etc. were including in ordinary people. These were ordinary Brahmans, trader and women also. 1.In the society there were a few low class people, who were non-influential. They were Dombar, Mana, Jogi, Paraiyan, Boi, Kallar etc. Some low caste people were coverted to Christianity due to the influence of the Portugeuses. The evils of caste system and untouchability were practiced in the society.

The ordinary people of the Vijayanagar empire lived in ordinary houses. This is how the sixteenth century Portuguese traveller Barbosa described the houses of ordinary people existed in the society. The men were sold and purchased. There were some special rules for the slaves.

Q.9: Evaluate the importance of Amar Nayaka System in emergence of Vijayanagara Empire. 8 There is a important role of this sytem to emerging the Vijayanagara empire. That shows in the following points:

The amara-nayaka system was a major political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire.

It is likely that many features of this system were derived from the Iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate.

The amara-nayakas were military commanders who were given territories to govern by the raya.

The collected taxes and other dues from peasants.

5.A share of revenue was spent for the maintenance of irrigation works and temples.

The amar nayak retained part of the revenue for personal use and for maintaining a stipulated contingent of horses and elephants.

These contingents provided the Vijayanagara Kings with an effective fighting force with which they brought the entire southern peninsula under their control.

The amara-nayakas sent tribute to the King annually and personally appeared in the royal court with gifts to express their loyalty.

Kings occasionally asserted their control over them by transferring them from one place to another.

Many of these nayakas established independent kingdoms in the 17th century.

Passage based Question:-

Q. 10 Colin Meckenzie

Born in 1754, Colin Meckenzie became a famous engineer, surveyer and cartographer. In 1815 he was appointed the first surveyor General of India. A post he held till his death in 1821. he embarked on collecting local histories and surveying historic sites in order to better understand India’s past and make governance of the of the colony easier. He says that “It struggled long under the miseries of dead management…. Before the south came under the benign in

influence of the British government”. By standing Vijayanagar, Meckenzie believed that the east India company would gain “ much useful information on many of these institutions, laws and
customs whose influence still prevails. Among the various tribes of natives forming the general mass of the population to this date.

(i) Who was Colin Mackenzie? 2

Ans. Colin Mackenzie used to work in British East India Company. He took birth in 1754. He is a famous engineer, surveyor and humanist.


Which ancient city was founded by Colin Meckenzie?1 Ans. Hampi

Why did he start the surveys? 2

He started the surveys in order to better understand India’s past and make governance of the colony easier.

(iv) In which stages Colin Meckenzie completed his work? 2

Ans. First of all he prepared the maps. He collected the information’s about the local traditions from the priest of Virupaksha and Pampadevi temple.


Discuss whether the term “royal centre” is an appropriate description of the part of the city for which it is used.8

Ans- I think the term royal centre is an appropriate description for the part of the city for which it is used.

i) One of the most beautiful buildings in the royal centre is the Lotus Mahal, so named While the name is certainly romantic, historians are not quite sure what the building was used for one suggestion, found in a map drawn by Mackenzie is that it may have been a council chamber, a place where the king met his advisers.

ii) While most temples were located in the sacred centre, there were several in the royal centre as well. One of the most spectacular of these is one known as the Hazara Rama Temple. This was probably meant to be used only by the king and his family.

iii) The images in the central shrine are missing: however sculpted panels on the walls survive. These include scenes from the Ramayana sculpted on the inner walls of the shrine.

iv) While many of the structures at Vijayanagara were destroyed when the city was sacked, traditions of building palatial structures were continued by the nayakas. Many of these buildings have survived.

v) The royal centre was located in the south – western part of the settlement.

Although designated as a royal centre it included over 60 temples. Clearly the patronage of temples and cults was important for rulers who were trying to establish and legitimize their authority.




There were the Temple of Malyavanta Raghunathaswami, the Hampi Bazar, the Virupaksha Temple.

House of Victory and Elephant stable are also the main attraction built by the great Vijaynagra ruler Krishnadeva Raya.

1. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries about 85 percent of the population of India lived in its villages. Both peasants and landed elites were involved in agricultural production claimed rights to a share of the produce. This created relationships of cooperation, competition and conflict among them.

2 .The basic unit of agricultural society was the village, inhabited by peasants who performed the manifold seasonal tasks that made up agricultural production throughout the year tilling the soil, sowing seeds, harvesting the crop when it was ripe.

3 .The panchayat was headman known as muqaddam or mandal.

4 .Documents from Western India – Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra Record petitions sent by women to the village panchayat, seeking redress and justice.

5 .The Zamindars held extensive personal lands termed milkiyat, meaning property. Milkiyat lands were cultivated for the private use of zamindars, often with the help of hired or servile labour. Zamindars also derived their power form the fact that they could often collect revenue on behalf of the state, a service for which they were compensated financially.

6 .Both cultivated and cultivable lands were measured in each province. The Ain compiled the aggregates of such lands during Akbar’s rule. Efforts to measures lands continued under subsequent emperors. For instance in 1665, Aurangzeb expressly instructed his revenue of officials to prepare annual records of the number of cultivators in each village.

7 .The testimony of an Italian traveler, Giovanni Careri, who passed through India c, 1690, provides a graphic account about the way silver traveled across the globe to reach India.

The Ain is made up of five books (daftars) of which the first three books describe the administration.

8. The Ain completely department from this tradition as it recorded information about the empire and the people of India, and the people of India, and thus constitutes a benchmark for studying India at the turn of the seventeenth century.

Q.12 Examine the evidence that suggests that land revenue was important for the Mughal fiscal system.

Ans- Important of Land Revenue for the Mughal fiscal system:

 Administrative apparatus for land revenue: Revenue from the land was the economic mainstay of the Mughal Empire. It was therefore vital for the state to create an administrative apparatus to ensure control over agricultural production and to fix and collect revenue from across the length and breadth of the rapidly expanding empire.

To get specific information: The Mughal state tried to first acquire specific information about the extent of the agricultural domain and became a decisive agent in shaping agrarian relations.

To get specific information: The Mughal state tried to first acquire specific information about the extent of the agricultural lands in the empire and what these lands produced before fixing the burden of taxes on people.


iv)Two stage of fixing land revenue: The land revenue arrangements and then actual collection. The jama was the amount assessed as opposed to hasil, the amount collected. In his list of duties of the amil – guzar or revenue collector.


Cash or kind: Akbar decreed that while he should stive to make cultivators pay in cash, the option of payment in kind was also to be the state was to maximize its claims. The scope of actually realizing these claims was, however, sometimes thwarted by local conditions.


vi)Measurement of land: Both cultivated and cultivable lands were measured in the each province. The Ain compiled the aggregates of such lands during akbar/s rule. Efforts to measure lands continued under subsequent emperors. For instance, in 1665 Aurangzeb expressly instructed his revenue officials to prepare annual records of the number of cultivators in each village. Yet not all areas were measured successfully. As we have seen, forests covered huge areas of the subcontinent and thus remained immeasurable.



THEME - 8

PEASANT, ZAMINDARS AND STATE

Key concepts in nutshell

Peasants and agricultural production - Geographical Diversity

Looking for sources - Historical Epic and Records, Important chronicles - Ain-i-Akbari, Records from

Gujrat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan.

Peasants and their lands - cultivation was based on the principle of individual ownership.

Irrigation and Technology - Expansion of agriculture, monsoon remained the backbone of Indian

agriculture, artificial system of irrigations had to be devised, agriculture often harnessed cattle energy.


An abundance of crops - two major crops - the kharif and the rabi, new crops came from different parts of the world.


The village community.Caste and the rural milieu - Rajputs are mentioned as peasants. Panchayats and headman - The panchayats was usually a heterogeneous body; the headman was chosen through the consensus of the village elders, functions of the panchayat. Village artisan

The existence of substantial members of artisans. A little republic - deep inequities based on caste and gender distinctions.


Women in agrarian Society - women’s role in the production process, high mortality rates among women, women petitioned to the panchayat, Hindu and Muslim women inherited zamindaris.


Forest and tribes -Beyond settled villages, livelihood came from the gathering of forest produce, hunting and shifting agriculture, jungles provided a good defence. Inroads into forests - the state required elephants for the army, hunting expeditions by the Mughals, the spread of commercial agriculture


During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries about 85 percent of the population of India lived in its villages. Both peasants and landed elites were involved in agricultural production claimed rights to a share of the produce. This created relationships of cooperation, competition and conflict among them.


The basic unit of agricultural society was the village, inhabited by peasants who performed the manifold seasonal tasks that made up agricultural production throughout the year tilling the soil, sowing seeds, harvesting the crop when it was ripe.

The panchayat was headman known as muqaddam or mandal.


Documents from Western India – Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra – Record petitions sent by women to the village panchayat, seeking redress and justice.


The Zamindars held extensive personal lands termed milkiyat, meaning property. Milkiyat lands were cultivated for the private use of zamindars, often with the help of hired or servile labour.


Zamindars also derived their power form the fact that they could often collect revenue on behalf of the state, a service for which they were compensated financially.


Both cultivated and cultivable lands were measured in each province. The Ain compiled the aggregates of such lands during Akbar’s rule. Efforts to measures lands continued under subsequent emperors. For instance in 1665, Aurangzeb expressly instructed his revenue of officials to prepare annual records of the number of cultivators in each village.


The testimony of an Italian traveler, Giovanni Careri, who passed through India c, 1690, provides a graphic account about the way silver traveled across the globe to reach India.


The Ain is made up of five books (daftars) of which the first three books describe the administration.


The Ain completely department from this tradition as it recorded information about the empire and the people of India, and the people of India, and thus constitutes a benchmark for studying India at the turn of the seventeenth century.

A. Very short questions (02 Marks each)

Q1. Mention various duties performed by state officials in the 16th century?

Ans. They collect land revenue, measure the lands and keep records etc.

Q2. Who was the author of Ain-I Akbari?

Ans. Abul Fazl, writer of Ain-I Akbari, he was a famous Persian author, gems of Akber’s court.

Q3. Who were Raiyat? How many types of Raiyat?

Ans. They were peasants. There are two types of Raiyat - Khud-khasta and Pahi-khasta. Khud-khasta - They were residents of the village in which they held their land. Pahi-khasta - They were non-resident cultivators who belonged to some other village, but cultivated lands were else were on a contractual basis.

Q4. How many seasons of agriculture according to Ain?

Ans. According to Ain-i-Akbari, agriculture was organized around the two major seasonal cycles - The kharif and the rabi. Kharif - rice and jawar. Rabi - wheat and gram

Q5. What was Jins-i-Kamil?

Ans. Literally perfect crops. Example - cotton and sugarcane.

B. Short Questions (04 marks each)

Q6. Describe the functions of panchayat?

Ans. 1. Community welfare - Construction of bund or digging the cannel which peasants usually could not afford to do on their own.

Arrangements against natural calamities, like floods, famine, Droughts etc.

Regulate rural societies, like marriage and caste.

To ensure that caste boundaries among the various communities

Punishment - Example - to levy fines and inflict from the community.


Q7. Describe Ain-i-Akbari?

Ans. 1. Vision of Akbar’s empire.

Strong ruling class.

The organization of th court, administration and the army.4. Included detailed revenue, records - with the help of Todarmal tried to reorganize the whole revenue system.

Useful description of agrarian society.


Q8. What was the role played by women in agrarian society? Ans.1. Women worked shoulder to shoulder with men in fields.

Women sowed, weeded, threshed and winnowed the harvest.

Craft production - such as spinning yarn, sifting and kneading clay for pottery and embroidery.

Some restriction during some days of month - women were not allowed to touch the plough or the potter’s wheel in western India.

Produce children and look after them.

Q9. How land revenue was fixed?

Ans.1. It consisted of two stages - Jama and Hasil. Jama was the amount assessed and Hasil the amount collected.

Both cultivated and cultivable land measured in each province.

Prepared annual record of the number of cultivators in each village

Officials were appointed to measure land revenue.

The Dewan, who was responsible for supervising the fiscal system of the empire.

Q10. Explain the salient features of zabti system?

Ans.

Measurement of land was compulsory.

Classification of land:- Polaj, Parauti, Chachar, Banjar.

Calculation of the average products.

Fixation of state share.

Commutation into cash.

Collection of land revenue.










Long Questions (8 marks)

Q11. Who were zamindars? What were their functions? 2+6=10

Ans. Zamindars were the part of rural society, who lived on agricultural production had milkiyat belongs to upper caste. New Zamindars emerged from lower caste.Functions of Zamindars:

Collect revenue.

Mediate between king and peasant.

Maintain military.

Developed agricultural land.

Give money to farmers for agriculture.

Sell their own agricultural produce.

Make an arrangement for weekly or fortnightly market in the villages.

Making arrangement for repairing roads and water sources.

12. Passage Based Question:-7

Read the given passage carefully ad answer the question that follows;

CASH OR KIND

The Ain on land revenue collection. Let him (the amil-guzar) not make it a practice of taking only in cash but also in kind. The latter is effected in several ways. First, kankut: in the Hindi language Kan signifies grain, and kut, estimate. If any doubts arise, the crops should be cut and estimated in three lots, the good, the middling and the inferior and the hesitation removed. Often, too the land taken by appraisement, gives a sufficiently accurate return. Secondly, batai, also called bhaoli, the crops are reaped and stacked and divided by agreement in the presence of the parties. But in the case several intelligent inspectors are required; otherwise, the evil-minded and false are given to deception. Thirdly, khet-batai when they divided the fields after they are sown. Fourthly, lang batai; after cutting the grain, they form it in heaps and divide it among themselves, and each takes his share home and turns it to profit.



Q1. Explain the term Kankut? (2)

Ans. In the Hindi language Kan signifies grain and kut means estimate.

Q2. Explain the system of batai or bhaoli system of land revenue collection? (3)

Ans. The crop are reaped and stacked and divided by agreement in the parties. But in this cash several intelligent inspectors are required, otherwise, the evil minded and false are given to deception.

Q3. Explain the system of lang batai? (2)



Ans. After cutting the grain they from it in heaps and divide it among themselves, and each takes his share home and turns it to profit.

Q4. Which system of revenue collection, do you think, is better and why? (1)

Ans. Long Batai, because they divided equal among them and get profit.


Examine the evidence that suggests that land revenue was important for the Mughal fiscal system. 8

Ans- Important of Land Revenue for the Mughal fiscal system:

Administrative apparatus for land revenue: Revenue from the land was the economic mainstay of the Mughal Empire. It was therefore vital for the state to create an administrative apparatus to ensure control over agricultural production and to fix and collect revenue from across the length and breadth of the rapidly expanding empire.

To get specific information: The Mughal state tried to first acquire specific information about the extent of the agricultural domain and became a decisive agent in shaping agrarian relations.

To get specific information: The Mughal state tried to first acquire specific information about the extent of the agricultural lands in the empire and what these lands produced before fixing the burden of taxes on people.

Two stage of fixing land revenue: The land revenue arrangements and then actual collection.

The jama was the amount assessed as opposed to hasil, the amount collected. In his list of duties of the amil – guzar or revenue collector.

Cash or kind: Akbar decreed that while he should stive to make cultivators pay in cash, the option of payment in kind was also to be the state was to maximize its claims. The scope of actually realizing these claims was, however, sometimes thwarted by local conditions.

Measurement of land: Both cultivated and cultivable lands were measured in the each province. The Ain compiled the aggregates of such lands during akbar/s rule.

Efforts to measure lands continued under subsequent emperors. For instance, in 1665 Aurangzeb expressly instructed his revenue officials to prepare annual records of the number of cultivators in each village. Yet not all areas were measured successfully. As we have seen, forests covered huge areas of the subcontinent and thus remained immeasurable








THEME - 9

KINGS AND CHRONICLES

(MUGHAL COURT 16TH-17TH CENTURY)

Key concepts in nutshell


The Mughala and there empire - The name Mughal derives from Mongol period of Mughal empire 1526 -1707 the production of chronicles

From Turkish to Persian - Mughal court chronicles were written in Persian

The making of manuscripts - all books in mughals was manuscripts i.e. they were handwritten.

The Akbarnama and Badshanama - among the important illustrated mughal official histories the Akbarnama and Badshanama.

A unifying force - sulh-i-kul - Abul Fazl describes the ideal sulh-i-kul (absolute peace) .

Capitals and courts - capital city - the heart of mughal empire is capital city. Where the court assemble.

Titles and Gifts - The granting of titles to men of merit was an important aspect of mughal policy.

Mughal kings commissioned court historians to write accounts. These accounts recorded the event of the emperor’s time.

Babur laid the foundation for the mughal Empire in India by defeating the last Lodhi King Ibrahim Lodhi through the battle of Paniput.

Modern historians writings in English have termed this original text or accounts of texts as chronicles, as they present a continuous chronological record of events.

The creation of a manuscript involved a number of people performing a variety of tasks.

Painters too were involved in the production of Mughal manuscripts.

Babur took over the Lodi capital of Agra.

During the 1560s Akbar had the fort of Agra constructed with red sandstone quarried from the adjoining regions.

In the 1570s he decided to build a new capital, Fatehpuri sikri.

The keeping of exact and detailed records was a major concern of the Mughal administration.

Akbar was curious about Christianity and dispatched an embassy to goa to invite Jesuit priests.


The first Jesuit mission reach the Mughal court at Fatehpur Sikri in 1580 and stayed for about two years.

The Jesuit spoke to Akbar about Christianity and debated its virtues with the ulama. Two more missions were sent to the Mughal court at Lahore, in 1591 and 1595.


Very Short Question (02 Marks each)

Q1. Clarify the word meaning of Kornish?

Ans. Kornish was a form of ceremonial salutation in which the Courtier placed the palm of his right hand against his forehead and bent his head, It suggested that the subject placed his head the seat of the senses and the mind into the hand of humility; presenting it to the royal assembly.


Q2. Name the dynasty which ruled India during 1526 to 1707. Who was the founderofthis dynasty?

Ans. Mughal dynasty and founder of this dynasty was Babur.

Q3. What is meant by the term Kitabkhana?

Ans. The literal translation of the term Kitabkhana is library. It was a scriptorium that is a place where the emperors collection of manuscripts were kept and manuscripts were produced.


Q4. Manuscripts involved a number of people performing a variety of tasks. Give some such people engaged in the task.

Ans. Manuscripts involved a number of people performing a variety of tasks. Among them were paper marker, calligrapher, gliders, painters, bookbinders.

Q5. Babur’s memories were return in which language?

Ans. Babur’s memories Tuzuk-i-Babari were originally written in Turkish. They were translated in Persian as Babur Nama.

Q6. Explain the meaning of the term “Jihad” or Holy war or Crusade.

Ans. Most of the Muslim Sultans or rulers encouraged their soldiers to fight the Kafirs in the name of religion. This religious war known as jihad holy war or crusade Babur, too had declared his battle against Rana Sanga (or Mewar) a jihad.



Q7. Discuss the major features of Mughal provincial administration. How did the centre control the provinces?

Ans. Major features of Mughal provincial administration:

i. Subadar: The division of function established at the centre was replicated in the province.s

(Subas) where the ministers had their corresponding subordinateds (diwan, bakhshi and sadr).




The head of the provincial administration was the governor (subadar) who reported directly to the emperor.

Faujdars: The sarkars, into which each suba was divided, often overlapped with the jurisdiction of faujdars (commandants) who were reployed with contingents of heavy cavalry and musketeers in districts. The local administration was looked after at the level of the pargana (sub-district) by three semi – hereditary officers, the qaungo (keeper of revenue records), the chaudhuri (in charge of revenue collection) and the qazi.

A large support of staff of different categories such as clerk, accountants messengers etc: Each department of administration maintained a large support staff of clerks, accountants, auditors, messengers, and other functionaries who were technically qualified officials, functioning in accordance with standardized rules and procedures, and generating copious written orders and records. Persian was made the language of administration throughout, but local languages were used for village accounts.


The control of the provinces of the centre: The Mughal chronicles usually portrayed the emperor and his court as controlling the entire administrative apparatus and down to the village level. Yet as you have seen this could hardly have been a process free of tension. The relationship between local landed magnates, the zamindars, and the representatives of the Mughal emperor was sometimes marked by conflicts over authority and a share of the resources. The zamindars often succeeded in mobilizing peasant support against the state.

Short Question (04 marks each)

Q6. Assess the role played by women of the imperial household in the Mughal Empire. Ans. The role played by the women of the imperial household in the Mughal Empire

In the Mughal household a distinction was maintained between wives who came from royal families (Begams) and other wives(aghas) who were not of noble birth.

Apart from wives numerous male and female slaves populated the Mughal household: The tasks they performed varied from the most mundane to those requiring skill tact and intelligence.

After NurJahan Mughal queens and princesses began to control significant financial resources. Shahjahana’s daughter Jahanara and Roshanara enjoyed an annual income often equal to the high imperial mansabdars. Jahanara in addition received revenues from the port city of Surat, which was a lucrative centre of overseas trade.

Q7. Write a short note on Badshah Nama.

Ans. Badshah Nama Chronicle of a king based on the history of Shahjahan’s reign is an Important chronicle among official histories. Abdul Hamid Lahori, a pupil of Abul Fazal is known as itsaurthor. It is modelled of 10 lunar years each. Lahori wrote the first and second daftars


comprising of first two decades of Shahjahan’s reign (1627-1647) But due to infirmities of age he was unable to write the 3rd volume. Volume of the 3rd decade of the emperor’s rule was chronicle by historian waris. In 1944 the first time painting of Badshah Nama were exhibited in New Delhi, London and Washington.

Long Question (8 Marks)

Q8. Discuss the merits and demerits of the Mansabdari Sytem.

Ans.

Merits of the Mansabdari System

Control on revolts.

Qualification as basis of ranks.

Ban on Corruption

Forceful army

Emotional unity

Demerits of Mansabdari System

Misuse of money

Disloyalty of the soldiers towards the empire

Luxurious life of mansabdars

High salary of mansabdars created pressure on govt.

Less number of horsemen than the prescribed number affected the effectiveness of military.

Lack of direct link between emperor and soldiers

Q9. Source based questions;

DARBAR-I-AKBARI

Abul fazl gives a vivid account of Akber’s darbar. Whenver his majesty (Akber) holds court (darbar) a large drum is bitten, the sounds of which accompanied by divine praise. In this manner people of all classes received notice. His majesty’s sons and grand children the grandees of the court, and all other men who have admittance attend to make the kornish and remains standing in their proper place learned men of renowned and skillful machines pay their respect. And the officers of justice present their reports. His majesty with his usual insights gives orders and settlers everything in a satisfactory manner. During the whole time skillful gladiator’s and wrestlers from all countries hold themselves in readiness and singers male and female are in waiting. Claver jugglers and funny tumblers also are annexations to exhibit their dexterity and agility.

Q1. Describe the main activities taking place in the court? 4

Ans. Main activities taking place in the darbar are :

Beating of the drum. To announced holding of dewan-i-am.

52

 Divine praise to establish emperor as “insane-i- kamil”

 The emperor sons, grand children and other grandees take their positions according to status, hierarchy and proximity to the king.

 All attending court women standing to pay respect and offer salutation to the king.

 Learned men, mechanics, officers of justice present report to the king for review and update.

Gladiators, wrestlers, singers, women in waiting to exhibit their skill and for royal patronage.

Q2. What was the significant of the darbar procedures? 1

Ans. The dauber procedures reflected the status and power of the emperors.

Q3. Define the term “Kornish”. 1

Ans. “Kornish” was a form of ceremonial salutation in which the courtier placed the palm of his right hand against his forehead and bent his head.

Q4. Explain the term “Jharokha Darshan.” 2

Ans. “Jharokha Darshan” showing of the emperor to the public from the palace balcony. It was introduced by Akbar with the objective of broadening the acceptance of the imperial authority.



THEME - 10
COLONIALISM AND THE COUNTRYSIDE

Key concepts in nutshell

Bengal - Establishment of colonial rule - New land revenue, Auction system under Warren Hastings - 1793, Permanent Revenue settlement in Bengal by Lord Cornwallis.

Crises in village economy, revenue demand of the state was fixed.
The rise of the Jotedars, Their land was cultivated through share croppers.
Resistance of Zamindars, their land was auctioned frequently.
The fifth report -report submitted to British parliament 1813

The Hoe and the Ploug - Shifting agriculture, expensive of village economy.
Paharias -hunters food gathers connected with forests, invaded settled farmers 1770.

Santhals - Settled in bangal- practiced cultivation land demarcated to them known as Daman-i-koh.

Conflicts with unsettled paharias -1850 - they resisted the British - Santhal revolt.
Revolt in the Bombey and Deccan - 1875
Burning of account book of money lenders and shop keepers

New revenue System - Ryotwari system in Bombey Deccan - Direct settlement, land assessed for 30 yrs subject to periodic revision

1.1 The problem of unpaid revenue.


I. In introducing the permanent settlement, the British hoped to resolve the they had been facing since the conquest of Bengal .


problems



The rural economy in Bengal was in crisis with recurrent famines and declining agriculture output.

III. The problem lay in identifying individuals who could both improve
and contract to pay the fixed revenue to the state .

IV. The permanent settlement was made with the rajas and taluqdars of Bengal .
V. They were classified as Zamindars and had to pay the revenue that was fixed


agriculture


VI. The Zamindar was not the landowner in the village ,but a revenue Collector of the state . VII. The zamindar collected rent from different villages, paid the revenue to the company ,and retained the differences as his income .

VIII. He was expected to pay the Company regularly , failing which his estate could be auctioned
.
1.2 Why zamindars defaulted on payments

The initial demand was very high: It was felt that if the demand was fixed for all time to come the company would never be able to calim a share of increased income from land when prices rose and cultivation expanded.

The company increased the revenue and argued that the burden on the Zamindar would decline as agriculture production expands and price rose.

II Imposition of high demand:

 The price of agriculture produce were depressed, the ryots could not pay their dues to the zamindar
 The zanindar could not collect the rent and was not able to pay the company.

III The revenue was invariable:
The revenue was invariable,regardless of of the harvest,and had to pay punctually.
They followed sunset law.

IV The powers of the Zamindars limited:

         The permanent settlement limited the powers of the zamindars to collect the rent from the ryot and manage his zamindari .

1.2 The rise of the jotedars

I. A group of rich peasants consolidated their position in the villages.
 This class of rich peasant was known as jotedar.

III. The jotedars had acquired vast areas of land.

IV. They controlled local trade as well as money lending,exercising immense power over the poorer cultivators of the region
V. A large part of their land was cultivated through sharecrop

VI. When the estate of the zamindar was auctioned for failure to make revenue payment, jotedars were often amongst the purchasers.

VII. The jotedars were the most powerful in North Bengal, in some places theywere called haoladars, gantidars or Mendal

54

2.2 The accounts of Buchanan
I. He was an employee of the British East India Company

He marched everywere with a la rge army of people – draughtsman, surveyors, palanquin bearers, coolies.
III. The cost of the travels was borne by the East India Company.
IV. He was perceived as an agent of the sarkar.
V. He observed the stones and rocks and different strata and layers of soil.

VI. He searched for minerals and stones thatwere commercially valuable,he recorded all signs of irons ore and mica , granite and saltpeter .
VII. He carefully observed the local practices of salt –making and iron ore mining

Questions- 2 marks

Q.1 What was Permanent Settlement?2

Ans. The practice of collecting land revenue introduced by Lord Cornwalis in 1793 is known as permanent settlement. In this system the land was given to landlords (Zamindars) permanently. The amount of revenue had been fixed in permanent settlement.

Q.2 Explain the ryotwari system of revenue. 2

Ans. The revenue system that was introduced in the Bombay Deccan came to be known as ryotwari. In this system, the revenue was directly settled with the ryot. The average incomes from different types of soil were estimated. The revenue- paying capacity of the ryot was assessed and a proportion of it fixed as the share of the state.
Q.3 What was Deeds of hire? 2

Ans. When debts mounted the peasants were unable to pay back the loan to the moneylender. They had no option but to give over all land under their possession, carts and animals to the money lenders. But without animals they could not continue to cultivate. So they took land on rent and animals on hire. Now they had to pay for them which had originally belonged to them. He had to sign a Deed of hire stating very clearly that these animals and carts did not belong to them.

Q.4 Who were santhals? What are the two features of their lives? 2

Ans. They were the tribes living in the foothills of Rajmahal hills. They cultivated their fields by plough and much civilized than the Paharias.

Q.5 What do you understand by Deccan riots commission? 2

Ans. The commission which was set up to investigate the riots of Deccan’s farmer in 1875. It was set up by the government of Bombay due to immense pressure ofGovernment of India. Its report was presented in 1878 before the British Parliament.

Q.6 Who were Jotedars? 2

Ans. The group of rich farmers were known as Jotedars. They controlled local trade as well as money lending, exercising immense power over the poorer cultivator’s of the region.


55

4 Marks Questions-

Q.7 Why Zamindars defaulted on payments? 4
Ans. The reasons for this failure were various-

The initial demands of tax were very high, because the company felt that if the demand was fixed for all time to come they would never be able to claim for high shares in the condition of increased income. (ii) This high demand was imposed in the 1790s, a time when the prices of agricultural produce were depressed, making it difficult for the ryots to pay their dues to the zamindar. If the Zamindar could not collect the rent, how could he pay the company?

The revenue was invariable, regardless of the harvest, and had to be paid punctually.

The permanent settlement initially limited the power of the Zamindars to collect rent from the ryot and manage his zamindari.


Q.8 Why did the Santhals revolted against the British rule? 4
Ans. The Santhals were revolted against the British rule due to following reasons-
The land that Santhals had brought under cultivation was slipping away from their hands.
The state was levying heavy taxes on the land that the Santhals had
cleared, money lenders (dikus) were charging them high rates of interest.

 Moneylenders were taking over the land from Santhals when debts remained unpaid, and Zamindars were asserting control over the Damin - i - koh area.

 By the 1850s, the Santhals felt that the time had come to rebel against Zamindars, money lenders and the colonial state in order to create an ideal world for themselves where they would rule.

It was after the Santhal Revolt (1855-56) that the Santhal Pargana was created, carving out 5,500 sq. miles from the districts of Bhagalpur and Birbhum.
Q.9 Discuss about the life of hill folk of Rajmahal hills, Paharia. 4

Ans. (i) Paharias lived around the Rajmahal hills, subsisting on forest produce and practicing shifting cultivation.
They cleared patches of forest by cutting bushes and burning the

undergrowth on these patches, enriched by the potash from the ash, the Paharias grew a variety of pulses and millets for consumption.

They scratched the ground lightly with hoes, cultivated the cleared land for few years, then left it fallow so that it could recover its fertility, and moved to a new area.

From the forests they collected Mahua (a flower) for food, silk cocoons and resin for sale, and wood for charcoal production. The life of the Paharias - as hunters shifting cultivators, food gatherers, charcoal producers, silkworm rearers - was thus intimately connected to the forest.

8 Marks Questions-

Q.10 What are the problems of using official sources in writing about the history of peasants? 8 Ans. Following are the problems in using official sources in writting about the history of peasants.

(i)The official sources reflect only British official concerns and interpretation of all events from the outlook and angles of the English. For example, the Deccan riots commission was

56


specifically asked to judge whether the level of Government revenue demand was the cause of the revolt.
(ii)Most of the events, revolts and happening have been presented in a blased manner.

(iii)The colonial Government and official had their own political, economic religious, cultural and social interest. They had always tried to present the picture of Indian society, people, tradition, culture and even the achievements.

(iv)The sources have been presented and recorded by such clever and naughty people who have intentionally presented things with false evidences also. For example, the Deccan Riot Commission presenting all the findings with such evidences which were utilized to give

authencity to thereport of the commission.Thecommission has presented this fabricated fact that the Government demand was not the cause of the peasants anger. It was

the moneylenders (again Indian) who were to be blame for such argument is found very frequently in British colonial records. This shows that there was a persistence on the part of the





colonial government to admit that popular discontent was ever on account of Government action.

Official reports, thus are invaluable sources for the reconstruction of history. But they have to be always read carefully and compared with evidence form newspapers, unofficial accounts, legal records and where possible oral sources.

Q.11 What were steps taken by the British East India Company to control the Zamindars? 10 Ans. The British East India Company took the following steps mainly to maintain its control over the Zamindars.

(i)The zamindar’s troops were disbanded custom duties were abolished. (ii)Their cutcheries

(Courts) brought under the supervision of collector appointed by the company.

The power to deliver local judgment was also taken away from zamindars. In fact zamindars held their control and leadership through local courts and other panchayats. They lost their power to organize local police. Over time, the collectorate emerged as an alternative center of authority, severely restricting what the zamindar could do.

(iv)In case a Raja (powerful zamindars) failed to pay the land revenue, a company official was speedily dispatched to his zamindari which explicit instruction “to take charge of the District and to use the most effectual means to destroy all the influence and the authority of the zamindar and his officers.

(v)Some of the scholars believe that some trouble creators were also used as tools toreduce the influence of Rajas. For example, when the zamindars dispatchedtheiramlah(collector of revenue or representative of zamindar).Some naughty people used to create problem for zamindars. Some ryots and village headmen jotedars and mandals-were only too happy to see the Zamindar in trouble. The zamindar could therefore not easily assert his power over them.

12. Passage Based Questions.

Referring to the condition of zamindars and the auction of lands, the Fifth Report stated. The revenue was not realized with punctuality, and lands to a considerable extent were periodically exposed to sale by auction. In the native year 1203, corresponding with 1796 - 1797, the land advertised for sale comprehended a jumma or assessment of sicca rupees 28, 70, 061, the extent of land actually sold bore a jumma or assessment of 14,18, 756 and the amount of purchase money sicca rupees 17,90, 416,. In 1204 corresponding with 1797-98 the land

57


advertised was for sicca rupees 26, 66, 191 the quality sold was for sicca rupees 21, 47, 580. Among the defaulters were some of the oldest families or the country. Such were the rajahs of Nuddea, Rajeshaye Bishenpore (all districts of Bengal), and others, the dismemberment of whose estates at the end of each succeeding year threatened them with poverty and ruin, and in some instances presented difficulties to the revenue officer, in their efforts to preserve undiminished the amount of public assessment.
.
THEME-11
REBELS AND THE RAJ

Key concepts in nutshell

Rebels and the Raj - The revolt of 1857 and its representation Pattern of Rebellion - People from different walks of life plunged into the revolt - due to their hatred against the oppressive policies of the British Centres of the Revolt - Lucknow, Kanpur, Barrelly, Meerut, Arrah in Bihar.

Leaders - Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi, nana Saheb, Kunwar Singh, Bakt Khan, Begum Hazret Mehals, Tatya tope.

Awadh revolt - direct annexation policy of Dalhousie - 1856. Hatred provoked -

dispossessed taluqdars of Awadh , Injustice done to Nawab Wajid Ali Shah of Awadh embittered the people.
Revolt of the sepoys :
1) Policy of social superiority of British
2) Interference in religious matters - greased cartridges issues.
The vision of unity :
1) Hindu Muslim unity
2) Search for alternative powers
3) Rebels established parallel administration, in Delhi, Lucknow,
Kanpur after capturing centres of British power. Later they failed.
British policy of repression.

Repression - 1857 - North India was brought under strict law to prolonged attacked of British - one from Calcutta to North India, another from Punjab to recover Delhi, 27000 Muslims hanged.

Image of the Revolt - Pictorial images produced by British and Indians - posters and cartoons. The performance of terror : 1) Execution of rebels Nationalist imageries: 1) Inspiration to nationalists Celebration as first war of Independence - leaders depicted as heroic figures.






1.PATTERN OF THE REBELLION

1.1 How the mutinies began

I. The sepoys began their action with a signal, firing of the evening gun or the sounding of the bugle.

II. They seized the bell of the arms and plundered the treasury .

III.Theyattacked the government buildings– the jail,treasurey,telephone office ,record room ,bungalows –burning all records

59

IV. Every thing and everybody connected with the white man became a target .

V. In major towns like Kanpur,Lucknow nad Bareilly,money lenders and rich became the objects of rebel.

1.2 Leaders and followers

I. To fight the British ,leadership and organization were required ,for this they turned towards the Mughal ruler Bahadur Shah who agreed to be the normal leader of the rebellion .
In Kanpur ,the sepoys and the people of the town agreed to support Nana Sahib .

III. In Jansi the rani was forced to assume the leadership of the uprising IV. Kunwar Singh a local Zamindar in Arrah in Bihar.

V. The local leaders emerged ,urging peasants ,zamindars and tribals to revolt eg- Shah Mal mobilized the villagers of pargene ,Baroutin uttar Pradesh ,Gonooa tribal cultivator of Singhbhum in Chotanagpur .

1.3 Rumours and prophecies

I. There was the rumour that the British government had hatched a gigantic conspiracy to destroy the caste and religion of the Hindus and Muslim.

The Remour said that the British had mixed the bone dust of cows and pigs into the flour that was sold in the market .
III. These sepoy and the common people refused to touch the Atta .
IV. There was a fear and suspicious that the British wanted to convert Indians to Christianity .

V. The sepoy had the fear about bullets coated with the fats of cows and pigs ,biting those bullets would corrupt their caste and religion .




1.4 Why did the people believe in the rumours?

I. The British adopted policies aimed at reforming Indian societyby introducing Western education, western ideas and western institutions.

With the cooperation of sections of Indian society they set up English medium schools, colleges and universities which taught Western sciences and the liberal arts .

III. The British established laws to abolished customs like sati (1629) and to permit the remarriage of Hindu widows.

IV. The British introduced their own system of administration, their own laws and their own methods of land settlements and land revenue collection.

2 AWADH IN REVOLT
2.1 “A cherry that will drop into our mouth one day “

I. In 1851 Governor General Lord Dalhousie described the kingdom of Awadh as “a cherry that will drop into our mouth one day “and five years later it was annexed to the British Empire .

The Subsidiary Alliance had been imposed on Awadh .


60

III. The terms of this alliance the nawab had to disband his military force of the British to

position their troops within the kingdom and act in accordance with the advice of the British

IV. Deprived of his armed forces the nawab became increasing dependent on the British to maintain law and order within the kingdom.
V. He could no longer assert control over the rebellious chief and taluqdars.

3.WHAT THE REBELS WANTED

3.1.The vision of unity
I. The rebellion was seen as a war in which both Hindus and Muslims had equally to lose or gain.

The ishtahars harked back to the pre- British Hindu- Muslim past and glorified the coexistence of different communities under Mughal Empire.

III. In1857 the british spent Rs.50000 - /- to incite the Hindu population against the Muslims but the attempt failed.
3.2 Against the symbols of oppression

I. The land revenue settlements had dispossessed landholders, both big and small and foreign commercehad driven artisans and weavers to ruin.

II. Every aspect of the British rule was attacked and the firangi accused of destroying a way of life that was familiar and cherished.

III. The proclamations expressed the widespread fear that the British were bent on destroying the caste and religions of Hindus and Muslims and converting them to Christianity.

IV. People urged to come together and fight to save their livelihood, their faith, their honour, their identity.
4. IMAGES OF THE REVOLT

I. Official accounts of colonial administration and military men left their versions in letters and diaries, autobiography and official histories.

The changing British attitudes through the innumerable memos and notes, assessments of situations.

III. The stories of the revolt that were published in British news papers and magazines narrated in glory detail the violence of the mutineers

IV. Pictorial image produced by the British and Indians paintings pencil drawings cartoons

bazaar prints.

4.1. Celedrating the saviours

I. British pictures offer a variety of images that were meant to provoke a range of different emotions and reactions .

Some of them commemorate the British heroes who saved the Englishand repressed the rebels.
III. “Relief of Lucknow “, painted by Thomas Jones Barker In 1859.

4.2 English women and the honour of Britain

I. The British government was asked to protect the honour of innocent women and ensure the safety of helpless children.

61


Artist expressed as well as shaped these sentiments through their visual representations of trauma and suffering.

4.3 The performances of terror

I. The urge for vengeance and retribution was expressed in the brutal way in which the rebels were executed .
II. They were blown from guns, or hanged from the gallows .
III. Images of these executions were widely circulated through popular journals .


4.4 Nationalist imageries
I. The nationalist movement drew its inspiration from the events of 1857.
II. A whole world of nationalist imagination was woven around the revolt.

It was celebrated as the first war of independence in which all sections of the people of India came together to fight against imperial rule.
IV. Art and literature had helped in keeping alive the memories 1857

Very short Questions (02 marks each)

Q1. Which Governor-Genreral introduced the Subsidary Alliance? Name the four major powers accepting it. 2

Ans. Subsidary alliance was introduced by Lord Wliesley. Hyderabad, Awadh, Mysore, Tanjore, Surat, etc were the four major powers who accepted it.

Q2. Which English lady defended herself bravely against the Indian rebels in Kanpur? 2 Ans. Miss Wheeler defended herself bravely against the Indian rebels in Kanpur.

Q3. Who was the last Nawab of Awadh? Where was he sent on Pension?

Ans. Wajid Ali Shah was last Nawab of Awadh. He was sent to Calcutta on pension.

Short Questions (04 marks each)
Q4. What were the policies and administrative causes of the Revolt of 1857?
Ans. (a) Imperialist policy of the British administrators.
Doctrine of Lapse
Abolition of pensions and Titles.
Disrespect to the Mughal Emperor.
Annexation of Awadh
(f)Misuse of Subsidiary alliance.

Q5. What were the causes of the failure of the 1857 Revolt? 5 Ans. (a) Breaking out before of the fixed date.
Co-operation of the native states to the British.
Lack of co-operation from the Elite.
Limited resources of the Rebels.


62

(e)Absence of a common ideal.
(f) Diplomacy of the British.
Q6. Discuess the nature of revolt of 1857. 5
Ans. (a) Only a Sepoy mutiny –
The main ground for the uprising had been prepared by the soldiers.
Important and immediate causes of the revolt was the use of greased cartridges.
The revolt did not spread throughout the country.
The revolt did not enjoy the cooperation and support of the common people.

First war of Independence - Lakhs of artisans, farmers and soldiers struggled united against the British rule.

Hindu and Muslim took actively part in the movement.

The masses took active part in the struggle against the British at almost all centres of uprisings.
It had country wide presence.

Long Questions (8 marks each)

Q7. What were the social, economical religious and military causes of 1857 revolt? Ans. Economic Causes: - (a) Drain of wealth
Destruction of Indian industries, trade & commerce.
Exorbitant rate of land revenue.
Resumption of Inami or rent-free lands.
Unemployment and poverty among the masses. Social Causes:-

 Maltreatment of the Indians.
Interference in the social life of Indians.
Spread of Western Education.
Propagation of Christianity.

Military Causes:-
Unrest among the Indian soldiers.
Increase ratio of Indian soldiers.
Faulty distribution of troops.
General Service Enlistment Act.
Greased cartridges.

Q.8 How were the lives of forest dwellers transformed in the 16th-17th centuries.?8

Ans :-1.The business encouraged forest clearance zamindars and jotedars turned uninitiated lands in to rice fields to the British, extension of settled agriculture why necessary to enlarge the sources of land revenue. produce crops for export and establish the basis of a settled, ordered society.

The British saw forest people as savage impurely and primitive and difficult to govern, so they felt that the forest had to be leaped settled agriculture established and forest people dammed civilized and persuaded to give up hunting and take to plough agriculture.

3.in the 1770s the British embarked on a brutal policy to extermination, hunting the Paharias down and killing them then by 1780s,augustas Cleveland the collector of Bhagalpur purposed a policy of


63


polification. The Paharias chief were given an annual allowance and made responsible for the proper conduct of their man

4.Some Paharia chief refused the complains continued, the Paharias withdraw deep into the mountains insulting themselves from Lositle forces and carrying on a war with the outbiddersso when Buchanan travelled through the region in the winter of 1880/1881,the Paharia naturally viewed him with suspicion and distrust.

5.The Santhals themselves were powering into area, cleaning forest, cutting down timber, ploughing land and growing rice and cotton,this leades why Sindhus Manjhi.

Q9. What explains the anger of the Deccan ryots against the moneylenders?
Ans:-
       By 1830s prices of agricultural products fell sharply.
         Decline in peasant’s income revenue could rarely be paid without a loan from money lenders.
       Ryots found difficult to pay it back, debt mounted.
        Ryots needed more loan to buy their everyday needs.

        Sahukar’s export merchants in Maharashtra stopped long term credit and started demanding repayment of debt.

       Petition after petition, Ryots complained of the injustice of insensitiveness and the violation of custom.

        The Ryots came to see the money lenders as devious and deceitful.
        Limitation law was passed to check the accumulation of interest overtime.
        Deeds and bonds appeared as symbols of the new oppressive system.
10. Source based Questions :-

Read the following passage and answer the following questions given below: 8 We get significant information from Azamgarh proclmattion.
25 Aug,1857 as to what the rebels wanted.
Section III. Regarding Public servants

It is not a secret things, that under the British Government, native employed in the civil and military service have little respect, low pay and no manner of influence; and all he post of dignity and emolument in both the departments are exclusively bestowed on Englishmen ….

Therefore, all the native in the British service ought to be alive to their religion and interest, and adjuring their loyalty to the English side with the Badshahi Government and obtain salaries of 200 and 300 rupees for the present, and be entitled to high post in the future……

Section IV - Regarding Artisans. It is entitled that the Europeans, by the introduction of English articles into India, have thrown the weavers, the cotton dressers, the carpenters, the blacksmiths, and the shoemakers, etc., out of employ, and have engrossed their occupations, so 60 that every description of native artisan has been reduced to beggary. But under the Badshahi Government the native artisans will exclusively be employed in the service of the kings, the rajas, and the rich; and this will no doubt ensure their prosperity therefore, these artisans ought to renounce the English Service.







64

Q1. How did the introduction of English affect the artisans? 2

Ans. The Artisans were deprived of their employment. The cheap machine-made goods of Britain captured the Indian markets. Consequently, the every description of native artisan was reduced to beggary.

Q2. How would the condition of the artisan improve under the Badshahi Government? 2

Ans. Under the Badshahi Government, the native artisans will exclusively be employed in the service of the kings, the rajas and the rich.

Q3. Why were the public servants dissatisfied with the British Government? 1

Ans. Under the British government, natives employed in the civil and military service had no respect. Their salaries were low and they had no power or influence.

Q4. What did the rebel proclamation repeatedly appeal for? 2

Ans. The rebel proclamation repeatedly appealed that the Indians should take care of their religion and interests and they should take care of their religion and interests and they should side with the Badshahi





THEME : 12
COLONIAL CITIES

URBANISATION, PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE

Key concepts in nutshell
Sources :- ( I ) Records of the East India company.
( ii ) Census reports
( iii ) Municipal reports.

The urban population increased from about 10 % to 13 % during the period 1900-1940.

During the end of the 18th century Madras, Bombay and Calcutta had developed into important ports.

The ruling elite built racially exclusive clubs, race courses and theatres.

The development of new modes of transportation such as horse drawn carriages, trams, buses etc. facilitated peoples to live at distant place from the places of their work.

The rulers everywhere try to express their power through buildings. Many Indian adopted European styles of architecture as symbols of modernity and civilisation.

The settlement of the local peoples were named “Black Town”. A fortification was built around the “ White Town” to separate it from the “ Black Town”.

Difficulties in collecting datas :-
(i) Peoples were unwilling to give correct informations.
(ii ) Figure of mortality and diseases were difficult to collect.

65

Ports :- Madras, Bombay and Calcutta
Forts :- St. George in Madras and Fort William in Calcutta.

1.TOWNS AND CITIES IN PRE- COLONIAL TIMES

1.1What gave towns their character?
I. Towns were defined in opposition to rural areas.
II. Towns represented specific forms of economic activities and cultures.
III. The people lived by cultivating land, foraging in the forest, or rearing animals.
IV. Towns by contrast were peopled with artisans, traders, administrators and rulers.
V. Towns dominated over the rural population

VI. Towns and cities were often fortified by walls which symbolized their separation from the countryside.

VII. When towns were attacked, people often sought shelter in the countryside .
VIII. Traders and pedlars took goods from the towns to sell in the villages .
IX. There was a revenue flow of humans and goods fromtowns to villages

X. The towns build by the Mughals were famous for their concentrationof populations, their monumental buildings and their imperial grandeur and wealth .
XI. Agra, Delhi and Lahore were important centres of imperial administration and control.
XII. Artisans produced exclusive handicrafts for the households of nobles .

XIII. Grains from the countryside was drought into urban markets for the town dwellers and the army .

XIV. The treasury was also located in the imperial capital.

XV. With in these towns were gardens, mosques, temples, tombs, colleges, bazzars and caravanserais.
XVI. The focus of the town was oriented towards the palace and the principal mosque.

1.2 Towns in south India

I. In the towns of south India such as Madurai and Kanchipuram the principal focus was the temple.
II. These temples were the important commercial centres.
III. Religious festivals often coincided with fairs, linking pilgrimage with trade.
IV. The ruler was the highest authority and the principal patron of religious institutions.

V. The relationship that he had with other group and classes determined their place in society and in the town.

1.3 Changes in the Eighteenth century
I. The old towns went decline and new towns developed in the 18th century.

II. The growth of new regional powers was reflected in the increasing importance of regional capitals- Lucknow, Hyderabad, SeringapatamPoona,Nagpur,Baroda, and Tanjore

Trade, administrators, artisans and others migrated from the old Mughal centres to these new capitals in search of work and patronage.

IV. In some places there was renewed economic activity, in other places war, plunder and political uncertainty led to economic decline.



66


V. The European commercial Companies had set up base in different places early during the Mughal era the Portuguese in Panaji in 1510, the Dutch in Masulipatam in 1605, the British in Madras in 1639 and the French in Pondicherry in 1873.

VI. By the end of 18th century the land based empire in Asia were replaced by the powerful sea
– based European empires.

VII. Forces of international trade, mercantilism and capitalism now came to decline the nature of society.

VIII. Commercial centre such as Surat, Masulipatam and Dhaka which had grown in the 17th century had declined when trade shifted top other places.

IX. Maras,Bombay, Calcutta rapidly emerged as a new economic capitals and colonial administration and political power

X. New buildings,occupations, institutionsdeveloped.
2 FINDING OUT ABOUT COLONIAL CITIE

2.1 Colonial record and urban history
I. Colonial rule a based on the production of enormous amount of data

The British kept detailed kept detailed record of their trading activities in order to regulate their commercial affair.

III. They carried out regular survey, gathered statistical data, and published various official report.

IV. The ton map give information regarding the location of hill, river and vegetation, all important for planning structure for defense purpose .

V. They ho the location of ghats, density and quality of house and alignment of roads, used to gauge commercial possibilities and plan strategies of taxation.

VI. The municipal corporation with some popular representative were meant to administer essential services such as water supply, sewerage, road buildings and public health

2.2 Problem faced while collecting the Census

I. The first all- India census was attempted in 1872. From 1881 decennial (conducted every ten years) censuses became a regular features.

II. The people often refused to cooperate or gave evasive answers to the census officials.

  The people were suspicious of census operation and believed that enquiries were being conducted to impose new taxes.

IV. Upper caste people were also unwilling to give any information regarding the women of their household.

V. Women were supposed to remain secluded within the interior of the household and not subjected to public gaze or public enquiry.

VI. Census officials also found that the people were claiming identities that they associate d with higher status.

VII. The figures of mortality and disease were difficult to collect for all deaths were not registered and illness was not always reported, nor treated by licensed doctors.



67


VIII. Historians have to use sources like census with great caution, keeping in mind their possible biases ,recalculating figures and understanding what the figures do not tell.

2.3 Trends of change
I. The smaller towns had little opportunity to grow economically.

Calcutta, Bombay and Madras on the other hand grew rapidly and soon became sprawling cities.
III. The introduction of railways in 1853 meant a change in the fortunes of towns .

IV. Economic activities gradually shifted away from traditional towns which were located along old routes and rivers .

V. Every railway station became a collection deport for raw materials and distribution point for
important goods.
VI. Railway towns like Jamalpur, Waltair and Bareilly developed as a trading center.
3. What were the new towns like?

3.1 Ports, forts and centers for services
I. Madras, Calcutta and Bombay had become important ports

The English East India Company build its factories because of competition among the Europeans companies, fortified the settlement for protection.

III. In madras, Fort St George, in Calcutta Fort William and in Bombay the ort marked out the areas of British settlement.

IV. There were separate quarters for Europeans and Indian, which came to be labeled in cotemporary writings as the “White Town” and “Black Town “.

V. Two Indusrial cities, Kanpur specializing in leather, woolen and cotton textiles and Jamshedpur, specialize in steel.

VI. India never became a modern industrialized country as discriminatory colonial policies limited the levels of Industrial development.

VII. Madras, Calcutta Bombay grew into a large city but did not signify any dramatic economic growth.

3.2 A new urban milieu
I. Colonial cities reflected the mercantile culture of the new rule.

Political power and patronage shifted from Indian rulers to the merchants of the East India Company.

III. Indians who worked as interpreters, middlemen, traders and suppliers of goods also had an important place in these new cities.
IV. Economic activities near the river of the sea led to the development of docks and ghats.

V. Around the periphery of the fort, Europeans merchants and agents built garden houses, racially exclusive clubs, racecourse and theatres for the ruling elite.


3.3 The first hill stations

I. The hill stations were a distinctive feature of colonial urban development.
II. The hill stations was initially connected with the needs of the British





army .



68


Hill station became strategic places for billeting troops ,guarding frontiers and launching campaigns against enemy rulers .
IV. The temperate and cool climate of the Indian hills was seen as an advantage .

V. British associated hot weather with epidemics, Cholera and malaria and attempts were made to protect the army from these diseases

VI. Hill stations were also developed as sanitariums i.e.. Place where soldiers could be sent foe rest and recover from illness.

4.1 Settlement and segregation in Madras

I. In 1639 they constructed a trading post in Madraspatam and the settlement known as chenapattanam.

The company had purchased the right of settlement from local Telugu lords, the Nayaks of Kalahasti.
III. Rivalry with French East India Company led the British to fortify Madras.
IV. Chintadripet area meant for weavers, Washermanpet colony of dyers ,Royapuram was
settlement for christain boatmen .
V. Dubashes were Indians who could speak two languages the local language and English.
VI. Triplicane Hindu religious centres.
VII. San Thome with cathedral was the centre Roman catholics.

4.2 White Town Fort St. George

I. Fort St. George became the nucleus of the White Town where most of the Europeans lived .

Colour and religion determined who was allowed to live within the fort III. The Company did not permit any marriages with Indians.

IV. Other than English ,the Dutch and Portuguese were allowed to stay because they were European and Christian.
4.3 Black Town
I. The Black Town developed outside the Fort

II. It was laid out in straight lines, and housed weavers, artisans, Middlemen and interpreters who played a vital role in the company trade .




Q.1 To what extent are census data useful in reconstruction patterns of urbanization in the colonial context ?2

Ans. Census data are very useful in reconstructing pattern of urbanization in the colonial context.

These data are useful of know exact number of population as well as the total population of white and blacks.
These data also tell us upto what extent total number of people or total
population had been affected adversely by the fearful or deadly diseases.

Census data provide us complete information about total number of different communities, their language, their works and means of livelihood as well as about their caste and religion also.

69


Q. 2 What were Civil Lines during the colonial rule? (2)

Ans. After the Revolt of 1857British attitudes in India were shaped by a constant fear of rebellion. They felt that towns needed to be better defended, and white people had to live in more secure and segregated enclaves, away from the threat of the “natives”. Pasturelands and agricultural fields around the older towns were cleared, and new urban spaces called “Civil Lines” were set up. White people began to live in the Civil Lines.

Q3. Why did the records of the colonial cities were preserved? (2)
Ans. (i) Tow know the change of population.
(ii) For reconstructing the history of growth of the colonial cities.

Q4.Write a common characteristics of the three colonial cities Bombay, Calcutta and Madras?
2

Ans. The English East India Company established their administrative and trade centers in these cities. Ports developed near these cities.

Q5. Write the names of any three hill stations established by the British in India? 2 Ans. Shimla, Mount Abu and Darjeeling.

Q6. What were the new kinds of public places that emerged in the colonial city? What function did they serve?8

Answer

(1). By the 18th century , madras, Calcutta and Bomaby had become important points and cities. The settlement that came up here were convenient points for collecting goods. The English East India Company built its factories (i.e. mercantile offices) there and because of competition among European companies fortified there settlement for protection. In Madras, Fort St. George, in Calcutta Fort William and in Bombay the Fort marked out the areas of British settlement which were known as ‘White town’. The Indian Merchants, artisan and other women who had economic dealings with Europeans merchants lived outside their fort. These forts in settlement of train own known as ‘Black Towns’.

(2). After 1850s cottons mills were setup by Indian merchants and enterprenants in Bombay and European - owned jute mills were established in Rishra (1855) on the outskirts of Calcutta.

(3).Kanpur , Specializing in leather ,wooden and cotton textile an d Jamshedpur , specializing in steel were prominent.
(4). In 1864 Viceroy John Lawrence officially moved his councils to Shimla

Q7. Why were the hill stations developed in India by Britishers 2 Ans.
Need of British army.
Strategic places of Army.
Cool climate temptation for Britisher.
Free from epidemics.

70

Healthy climate
Home away home for Britishers. Any five points are required

Q. 8 Assess the impact of health and defence needs on town planning in Colonial Calcutta. (4) Ans. In 1756, Sirajudula the Nawab of Bengal sacked the small fort which the British traders had built to house their goods. Consequently when Sirajudaula was defeated in the Battle of Plassey, the British built a new fort. Fort William could not be easily attacked. Around Fort William, a vast open space was left which came to be known as the Maidan or garer-math. This was done so there would be no obstructions to a straight time of fire from the Fort against an advancing enemy army. Soon the British began to move out of the Fort and build residences along the periphery of the Maidan. This was how the English Settlement in Calcutta started taking shape. The vast open space around the Fort became Calcutta’s first significant town planning measure.

Lord Wellesley was concerned about the conditions that existed in the Indian part of the city the fith, overcrowding and the poor drainge. He wrote a minute (an administrative order) in 1803 on the need for town planning and set up various committees for this purpose.

It was believed that creating open places in the city would make the city healthier. Consequently many bazaars, ghats, burial ground and tanneries were cleared or removed. After Wellesley’s departure, the Lottery Committee carried on with the work of Town Planning. In its drive to make the Indian areas cleaner, the committee cleared the river bank of encroachment and pushed the poor to the outskirts of Calcutta.

The outbreak of cholera and plague epidemics in the 19th century gave a further impetus to town planning. The government believed that there was a direct link between living conditions and the spread of disease. Densely built up areas were regarded as insanitary as it obstructed sunlight and circulation of air.

Q. 9 What was the condition of the cities during the colonial rule in India? 4

Ans. 1. New class of laborious poor and workers were emerging. Rural labourers were migrating to the cities for employment. Many were migrating due to the attractive city life.

Colonial rulers conducted surveys. They collected the statistical datas and published the governmental reports time to time.

Maps of Madras, Bombay and Culcutta were quiet different from the old ons. Architecture of the buildings were changed.

A large number of labours were coming to the hill stations where plantation of tea and coffe were done.
There were a number of opportunities for women in the cities. Some social

reformers supported women educations which was opposed by the orthodox opposed it. Gradually the participation of women in public places increased. They entered into the new occupations of the cities as maid, factory labourers, teachers, actress etc.

Q. 10 How did prominent Indian merchants establish themselves in the colonial city? (8)

Ans. Prominent Indian merchant establish themselves in colonial city in different phases. They establish themselves in all the three metro colonial cities i.e., Madras (Channai), Bombay (Mumbai) and Calcutta (Kolkata).

71


First of all these Indian merchants tried to establish their relation of the agents of the company. As there all colonial cities were trade centre and administrative official. Therefore the Indian merchants could easily get establish their relation with the Europeans. There cities were having different types of comforts such as modern hotels, restaurant, lodging, boarding, transport fancilities, roadways and shipping.

Later on Bombay become a major trade centre of opium with China. Prominent Indian merchant played active role in collecting opium from different places of Rajasthan and Malwa. They use to bring opium on the back of horses, ponies, camels by road transport etc. They use to earn a lot of money as middle man between farmers and companies agents and officials. Not only East India Company but some of the government official and later or other European also participated in illegal trade of opium. The prominent Indian merchant became very rich. They constructed big building in all big cities of colonial period. As the industrial revolution in England started and expanded. These colonial cities became entry point for British manufacture goods and for the expert of Indian ram materials (which was to be used in large scale industries and factories of England). The prominent Indian merchant also participated in there trade activities. The introduction of railways in 1853 meant a change in the fortunes of towns. Economic activity gradually shifted away from traditional towns which were located along old routes and rivers. Every railway station became a collection depot for raw materials and a distribution point for imported goods. For instance, Mirzapur on the Ganges, which specialized in collecting cotton goods from the Deccan, declined when a railway link was made to Bombay. With the expansion of the railway network, railway workships and railways colonies were established Railways towns like Jamalpur, Waltair and Bareilly developed.

The Indian merchants included the people of different communities and castes such as Parsi, Marwari, Konkani, Arbs, Gujarati. Baniyas, Boras and Jews. Some of the members of this community invested money in modern big industry, shipping and Airlines also. They donated money for construction of inns, wells, tanks, temples, Mosque, Churches and other places of religion and worships.

Q.11 Describe the growth of cantonments in India?(8)

Ans. For the defence of their Empire, the British Government established cantonments at strategic places. They also built cantonment on the borders of the many important native states to check the disturbance in these states and to control the activities of the rulers. In 1765, Lord Robert Clive initiated the policy of building cantonments for British troops to keep them “cantoned ” in one place, to enforce discipline and military way of life and also to keep them in a sanitized environment. During that time there were 62 cantonments in India. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the most important colonies in India were at Lahore, Peshawar, Ferozpur, Agra, Bareily, Jallandhar, Jhansi, Nagpur, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras and Delhi. The newly established cantonment at Bhatinda is the largest of the 62 cantonments in the country. The Director General of Defence Estates is the apex body of the Defence Estates organization having its offices in various parts of the country. It is entrusted with the task of administration of cantonments and management of defence lands both inside and outside the cantonments.

The cantonments are administered by the Cantonment Boards. The Cantonment Boards are autonomous bodies functioning under the overall control of the Central Government in the Ministry of Defence under the provisions of Cantonments Act, 1924. Cantonment Boards comprise of elected representatives besides ex-officio and nominated members, with the

72


station Commander as the President of the Board. The Central Government provides financial assistance by way of grants in aid to a certain extent to a number of cantonments to balance their budget and for discharging their mandatory civic duties like provisions of public health, sanitation, primary education, street lighting, etc.
Q. 12 What are the different colonial architectureal styles which can be seen in Bombay city ?
(8)
Ans. The different colonial architectural styles which can be seen in Bombay city


( A ) The new classical / The neo-classical

Its characteristics included construction of geometrical structure fronted with lofty pillars It was derived from a style that was originally typical of buildings in ancient Rome, and was subsequently revived, re-adapted and made popular during the European Renaissance.

1 The Town Hall in Bombay
2 Elphinstone Circle / Horniman Circle

( B ) The neo-Gothic

It is characterised by high-pitched roofs, pointed arches and detailed decoration. The Gothic style had its roots in buildings, especially churches, built in northern Europe during the medieval period.

1 The Secretariat
2 University of Bombay 3 High Court of Bombay 4 Victoria Terminus

The Indo-Saracenic A new hybrid architectural style which combined the Indian with the

European style. “Indo” was shorthand for Hindu and “Saracen” was a term Europeans used to designate Muslim.
1 The Gateway of India
2 The Taj Mahal Hotel
Q.13 Passage based question :- (8)
Read the given passage carefully and answer the questions that follow:-
“Escaping to the Countryside”

This is how the famous poet Mirza Ghalib described what the people of Delhi did when the British forces occupied the city in 1857: Smiting the enemy and driving him before them, the victors (i.e., the British) overran the city in all directions. All whom they found in the street they cut down … For two to three days every road in the city, from the Kashmiri Gate to Chandni

Chowk, was a battlefield. Three gates - the Ajmeri, the Turcoman and the Delhi - were still held by the rebels … At thenaked spectacle of this vengeful wrath and malevolent hatred the colour fled frommen’s faces, and a vast concourse of men and women … took to precipitate flightthrough these three gates. Seeking the little villages and shrines outside the city, they drew breath to wait until such time as might favour their return.

Who was Mirza Ghalib ? ( 1 )
Ans. Mirza Ghalib was a famous poet.

What was happening in Delhi in 1857 and why ? ( 2 )

73


Ans. After the revolt of 1857, Delhi was beseized by the rebels. But soon it was recovered by the British army.

(iii) Which three gates were under the rebels, while British army was in Delhi? ( 2 ) Ans. The three gates were - the Ajmeri, the Turcoman and the Delhi.
(iv) What was the condition of the people of Delhi?( 2
Ans. The colour fled frommen’s faces, and a vast concourse of men and women …

took to precipitate flight through these three gates. Seeking the little villages and shrines outside the city, they drew breath to wait until such time as might favour their return.

THEME - 13
MAHATMA GANDHI AND THE NATIONALIST MOVEMENT
CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE AND BEYOND

Key points in nutshell:-

Mahatma Gandhi is the most influential and revered of all the leaders who participated in the freedom struggle of India.

In January 1915, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi returned to India after spending two decades in South Africa.

It was in South Africa he first focused the distinctive techniques of non-violent protest known as Satyagraha and Promoted harmony between religions.

-On Gokhale’s advice he spent one year traveling around British India to know the land and its peoples.

-His first major public appearance was at the opening of the Banaras Hindu University in February 1916.

Here in his speech Gandhiji Charged the Indian elite with a lack of concern for the labouring poor .

He successfully organized Satyagraha at Champaran (Bihar in 1917); Ahmedabad and Kheda in 1918.
In 1919 Gandhiji called for a century wide campaign against the “Rowlatt Act”. It was the
Rowlatt Satyagraha that made Gandhiji a truly national leader.

In 1920 After Jalianwala Bagh Massacre he called for a campaign of non cooperation with British Rule and joined hands with the Khilafat movement.
-The British Raj was shaken to its foundations for the first time since the Revolt of 1857.
Non-cooperation movement was suspended in 1922 after Chauri-Chaura incident.

Causes of Gandhiji’s popularity among Indians-he dressed like them lived like them and speak their language.

Mahatma Gandhi was released from prison in February 1924 devoted himself in constructive work like promotion of home-spun cloth khadi, abolition of untouch- ability, Hindu-Muslim unity etc.

In 1928 Gandhiji began to think of reentering politics. After the failure of Simon Commission in its annual session at Lahore Congress demanded Purna Swaraj and decided to observe 26th January 1930 as Independence Day.


74

12th March 1930-Dandi Satyagraha, Salt March.
- On 6th April 1930 broke the salt law.

-Across large parks of India peasants breached forest laws, factory workers went on the strike,


lawyers boycotted courts and students refused to attend


government run educational


institutions.

1930- First Round Table conference- Gandhiji did not attend.

1931- Gandhi-Irwin pact, 2nd Round Table Conference- Gandhi attended

but it failed.

1935- Government of India Act

1937- Provincial Election, Congress formed ministries in 8 out of 11 provinces.
1939- World War II broke out, Individual Satyagraha.
1940- Two Nation Theory put forward by Jinnah.
1942- Failure of Cripps Mission.

9th August 1942- Quit India Movements by Gandhiji. Gandhiji along with

all prominent

leaders sent to jail.

1946- Cabinet Mission- Failed to get the Congress and the League to agree

on the federal

system.
16th August 1946- Direct Action Day and Communal riots in Bengal, Bihar, U.P and Punjab.
1947- Mountbatten was appointed as viceroy.

15th August 1947- Formal transfer of power, announcement of partition and India got her independence.

The last heroic days of Gandhiji:-

- On 15th August 1947 Gandhiji was not at Delhi to witness the festivities. He was at
Calcatta and undertook a 24 hour fast.
- Due to initiative of Gandhiji and Nehru Congress passed a resolution on the rights of the
minorities.

-After working to bring peace to Bengal Gandhiji shifted to Delhi from where he hoped to move on to the riot-torn districts of Punjab. On 30th January 1948 Gandhiji was shot dead by Nathuram Godse.

Sources to know more about Gandhiji:-
Public voice and private scripts.
Series of Personal letters published by Gandhiji in his journal Harijan.
A bunch of old letters edited by Nehru.
Fortnightly Reports of the Home Department.
From newspapers.

Very short questions(02 marks)
Q.1 Who were Lal-Bal-Pal?
Ans- All three were early extremist leaders, who led the nation-wide Nationalist movement. Lal-
Lala lajpat Rai, Bal- Bal Ganga dhar Tilak and Pal- Bipin Chandra Pal.

Q.2 Name one movement launched for farmers and peasants by Mahatma Gandhi in India?

75

Ans. 1. Champaran Satyagraha 1916 for indigo peasants.
2.Ahmedabad mill labour movement 1918.

Q.3 State the significance of Gandhiji`s speech at Banaras Hindu University? Ans:- 1. Gandhiji charged the Indian elite with a lack of concern for the labouring poor.

He worried about the contrast between the rich and poor. He felt salvation of India lay in the farmers.

Q.4 What is meant by Rowlatt Act?
Ans:- Anybody could be arrested on the basis of suspicion and put in prison without trial. This
Act was made by Rowlatt to suppress the freedom struggle.

Q.5 Why was charkha chosen as a national symbol? Ans:- 1- Symbol of self-reliance and self confidence.

2. Source of employment for thousands of poor and unemployed.

Q.6 What was the significance of Lahore Session of Congress? Ans:- 1- Declaration of poorna Swaraj as the main objective of Congress. 2- 26 January 1930 to be celebrated as Independence Day.

Q.7 Describe the Gandhi -Irwin Pact of 1931? Ans:- 1- Gandhiji postponed Civil Disobedience movement.

2- Irwin agreed to release all prisoners and allowed to make salt along the coast. 3- Gandhiji agreed to go to second round table conference.




Q.8 What was the attitude of the Indian National Congress towards the second world war?
Ans:-1-Both Mahatma Gandhi and Nehru were against Hitler and Nazis. 2-They promised congress support to the war effort if the British in return promised grant India Independence after the war.

Short questions (05 marks)
Q9. Why did Gandhiji start on-cooperation Movement? Why was it withdrawn?
Ans:- - To oppose Rowlatt Act.
- To undo the injustice done at Jalianwala Bagh.

- To support the Khilafat Movement.
- To attend Swaraj.

- Violence at Chauri-Chaura - He withdrew non co-operation movement

because of the incident of Chauri-Chaura
- Gandhiji believed in non-violence.


Q10. Explain the significance of Dandi March? Ans:- 1. Violation of Salt law- a monopoly of British and manufacturing of salt.


76

Large scale participation of women.
Civil law violated across large part of India.

Q11. What was the problem of separate electorates? What were the disagreement between Congress and Dalits on this issue? Finally what solution to be of this issue?

Ans:- Demand of separate electorates by the Dalits in which they wanted reservation in separate Electorates like muslims.

In 1931 in the second Round Table Conference Dalit leader Dr.B.R.Ambedkar said Congress does not represent the Dalits.

He said Dalits are socially and economically backward. By separate electorate they can put demands of their rights.

Gandhiji opposed the separate electorates.
Finally Congress gave separate electorates to Dalits within the Congress.


Long questions (8 marks)
Q12. How did Gandhiji transform National Movement into mass movement?
Ans:- 1. Simple lifestyle
Use of Hindi for communication
Role of Gandhiji in three mass movement.
Emphasis on Truth and non-violence
swadeshi, boycott and Swaraj.

Importance on Charkha and Khadi.
Upliftment of women, poor down trodden.
Hindu-Muslim unity
Abolition of untouchability.
Balancing each and every section of society.

Q13. Explain the sources from which we can reconstruct the political career of Mahatma Gandhi
and the history of National Movement of India.
Ans:- - Auto-biographies and biographies.
Contemporary newspapers.
Official and police records.,
Public speeches
private letters.

Q.14 “Where ever Gandhiji went, rumours spread of his miraculous power.” Explain with
examples.
Ans:- 1-The ascetic life style,
Use of dhoti and charkha
Use of Hindi for communication made Gandhiji very pular.
4- Where ever he went rumours spread of his miraculous powers. a- Sent by King to redress the

grievances of the farmers. b- Had power to overrule all local officials. c- Gandhiji was superior to the British.

77

5- Fight against untouchability.

Q. How was Mahatma Gandhi perceived by the peasants?

Ans. Known variously as “Gandhi baba”, “Gandhi maharaj”, or simply as “Mahatma”, Gandhiji appeared to the Indian peasant as a savior,who would rescue them from high tax and oppressive officials and restore dignity and autonomy to their lives.

Gandhiji’s appeal among the poor, and peasants in particular, was enhanced by his ascetic lifestyle, and by his shrewd use of symbols such as the dhoti and charkha.

How was non-cooperation a form of protest? 4

Ans. Students stopped going to school and collages run by the government. Lawyers refused to attend court. The working class went on strike in many town and cities: according to official figures, there were 396 strike in 1921, involving 600,000 workers and a loss of 7 million workdays. The countryside was seething with discontent too. Hill tribes in northern Andhra violated the forest laws. Farmers in Awadh did not pay taxes. Peasants in Kumaun refused to carry loads for colonial official. These protest movements were sometimes carried out in defiance of the local nationalist leadership. Peasants, workers, and others interpreted and acted upon the call to “non-cooperate” with colonial rule. It entailed denial, renunciation, and self-discipline. It was training for self-rule.

Q.15 Source based questions:-
Read the following passage and answer the questions given below:
Why the salt satyagraha?
Why was salt the symbol of protest? This is what Mahatma Gandhi wrote:

The volume of information being gained daily shows how wickedly the salt tax has being designed. In order to prevent the use of salt that has not paid the tax which is at times even fourteen times its value, the Government destroys the salt it can not sell profitably. Thus it taxes the nation’s vital necessity; it prevents the public from manufacturing it and destroys what nature manufactures without effort. No adjective is strong enough for characterizing this . wicked dog-in-the-manager policy. From various sources I hear tales of such wanton destruction of the nation’s property in all parts of India. Maunds if not tons of salt are said to be destroyed on the Konkan coast. The same tale comes from Dandi. Wherever there is likelihood of natural salt being taken away by the people living in the neighbourhood areas for their personal use, salt officers are posted for the sole purpose of carrying on destruction. Thus valuable national property is destroyed at national expense and salt taken out of the mouths of the people.

The salt monopoly is thus a fourfold curse. It deprives the people of a valuable easy village industry, involves wanton destruction of property that nation produces in abundance, the destruction itself means more national expenditure, and fourthly, to crown his folly, and unheard-of takes of more than 1,000 per cent is exacted from a starving people. This tax has remained so long because of the apathy of the general public. Now that it is sufficiently roused, the tax has to go. How soon it will be abolished depends upon the strength the people.





78

Q1- Why was salt the symbol of protest? 2
Ans- Salt was the symbol of protest because salt was used by everyone even by the poorest
Indians.

In every Indian household salt was indispensable yet people were forbidden from making salt even for domestic use compelling them to buy it from shops at a high price.

Q2- Why was salt destroyed by the Colonial Government? 3 Ans- The salt tax had been wickedly designed. In order to prevent the use of salt that has not paid the tax which was at times even fourteen times its value, the Government destroyed the salt it could not sell profitably.


Q3- Why did Mahatma Gandhi consider the salt tax more oppressive than other taxes? 2 Ans- Gandhiji considered the salt tax more oppressive than other taxes because salt tax was wickedly designed by the Government. The salt tax was at times even fourteen times its values. The Government destroyed the salt it can not sell profitably. Wherever there was likelihood of natural salt being taken away by the people salt officers were posted for destruction. In this way national property was destroyed at national expe





THEME 14

UNDERSTANDING PARTITION
POLITICS, MEMORIES, EXPERIENCES

Key concepts in nutshell
Sources - Incidents narrated by people.
Partition or holocaust

Communal riots
Refugee problem
• The power of stereotypes - The stereotypes of the extra territorial and Pan Islamic

loyalty confused with other objectionable ideas.
• Why partition took place –

Mr Jinnah’s two nation Theory
Hindu Muslim conflict
British policy of divide and rule
Communal electorates

 Post war development -Muslim league emerged as sole representative of Indian Muslims in the provincial elections.

 Cabinet mission proposal in 1946.
 Direct action day by Muslim league in 1946
• Gendering partition - women were raped, abducted and sold. Families were uprooted.

Preserving honor - where the men feared that their would be molested by the enemies,


79

they killed their own women.

• Sources : Oral testimonies - narrations, memories, diaries, family history and hand written accounts

Understanding Partition
Q. Why did some people think of Partition as a very sudden development?

Ans. Many people consider the partition of India in 1947 as a very sudden development. Even the Muslims were not clear what the creation of Pakistan meant to them. They were also unaware how the creation of their own country might shape their lives in the future. Many people had migrated to the new country with the hope that they would soon come back as and when the peace prevailed in the region. Many Muslims leaders were even not serious in their demand for Pakistan. Many a times Jinnah used the idea of Pakistan to seek favours from the British and to block concession to the Congress. In o the partition of the country took place so suddenly that nobody realized what had happened within a few days.

Q. What were Mahatma Gandhiji’s arguments against Partition?
Or

Examine the views of Gandhiji against the partition of India.

Ans. Mahatma Gandhi was a supporter of unity among various communities of the country.so he was deadly against the partition of India. He used to say that the country could be divided over his dead body.
He stated that the demand for Pakistan was un-Islamic and sinful.

The protagonists of partition of the country were the enemies of both Islam and India.

He considered partition as wrong.

He appealed to the Muslim League not to regard any Indian as its enemy. The Hindus and the Muslims belong to the same land. They eat the same food and drink same water. They speak the same language. They do everything with mutual consultation. So they cannot be seprated from each other.

Q. Why is partition viewed as an extremely significant marker in South Asian history?

Ans. This partition took place on the name of communities or religions. History has not witnessed such type of partition.

First time in history, people of two countries moved across. Most of the Muslims of India crossed over to Pakistan and almost all Hindus and Sikhs came to India from Pakistan.

Several hundred thousand people were killed.

Innumerable women were raped and abducted.

People were rendered homeless, having suddenly lost all their immovable and movable assets. Q. When did and why the Cripps Mission arrive in India? Mention two reasons that lead to the failure of the Cripps Mission of 1942.

Ans. During the Second World war, the Cripps Mission had come to India in March 1942 to have talks with Indian leaders with a view to grant Dominion Status to India after the end of the War. The Mission failed due to the following reasons:

80

It did not promise complete independence.

It rejected the congress’s proposals for the formation of a National government during the War.
Q.1 What do you mean by the term Holocaust?(2)

Ans. Holocaust means destruction or slaughter on a mass scale. Many scholors have used this term for loot, Arson, killings during the partition.

Q.2 What was Lucknow pact? (2)

Ans. The Lucknow pact of December 1916 was an understanding between the Congress and the Muslim league. The congress accepted separate electorates.

Q.3 What is Pakistan resolution? (2)

Ans. In 1940 the League moved a resolution demanding a measure of autonomy for the muslim majority areas.

Q.4 What was the attitude of the Indian National Congress towards second world war? (2)

Ans. The Indian National Congress was ready to help Britain if they makes a clear declaration to free India after the second world war.

Q.5 What was the impact of separate electorates for Muslims on the communal politics? Ans. i)The Muslims could elect their own representatives in reserved constituency. ii)They can favour the people belonging to their own religious groups.

Q.6 The partition of India was a holocaust. Justify? (4)
Ans.
 A large number of people were killed.
 Lakhs of people had became refugees.
 A large number of people were rendered homeless.
 There were killings, loots, arson and rape.
 People lost their properties and all their assets.


Q.7 What are the merits and demands of Oral history? (4)
Ans.

It helps us grasp experience and memories in detail.
It enables historians to write richly textured, vivid accounts of events like partition.
Oral history also allows historian to broaden the boundaries of their discipline.

  Many historians argue the uniqueness of personnel experience makes generalization difficult.
They think Oral accounts are concerned with tangential issues.

Q.8 Why Cabinet missions was sent to India? What were the main features of its plan? (8)



81


Ans. Cabinet mission was sent to India to suggest a solution for the Indian problem. -The mission recommended a loose three of her confederation.
-India would have a federal government including princely states and provinces of British India.
-Federal government would be dealing with Defence, Foreign affairs and communication.
-Provisions was made for the grouping of provinces.
-The representation of all three groups meet in a constituent Assembly to draft a constitution.
-Congress and League rejected the cabinet mission’s proposal.
Q.9 What was the impact of partition on Indian women. (8)

Ans. Impact of partition of India on Indian Women :
Harrowing experience of women - Abduction, sold, forced to set new life etc.

They were brutally tortured and beated.
They found the governmenst of both India and Pakistan insensitive to their problems.
Government’s insensitivity to the feelings of women.
Women not allowed to voice their opinion.
Killing of women in the name of saving honour of women.
Forcing women to commit suicide to save the
mselves from falling into the hands of enemies.

Their suicide was treated as martyrdom.

Dishonouring women of a community seen as dishonouring the community itself and a mode of taking revenge.
They were not allowed to re-settle their life on their own wish

Q.10. Read the following passage given carefully. Answer the questions that follow. (7)
“WITHOUT A SHORT BEING FIRED”
This is what moon wrote:

For over twenty-four hours riotous mobs were allowed to rage through this great commercial city unchallenged and unchecked. The finest bazaars were burnt to the ground without a shoot

being fired to disperse the incendiaries (i.e. those who stirred up conflict). The . . . District Magistrate marched his (large polices) force into the city and marched it out again without making any effective use of it at all. . .

To which event does the source refer to? Describe what the mobs were doing?
Why did Amritsar became the scene of bloodshed later in 1947? (3)
3.What was the attitude of the soldiers and policeman towards the mob? (2)

Give one example to show how Gandhiji tried to bring about communal harmony? (1) Ans. (1) It refers to an events held at the time of partition.
The mob were looting the market and trade centers.

Ans. (2). The British officials did not act to stop these unlawful and violent activities. The district administration had no control over the city.

Ans. (3). The Indian soldiers had started behaving as Hindu , Muslims or Sikhs.

They were helping the people of their community only.



82


Ans. (4). He advised the people of Hindu and Muslim communities at Delhi to maintain trust on each other.




THEME -15
FRAMING THE CONSTITUTION THE BEGINNING OF A NEW ERA

Key concepts in nutshell
The Indian constitution was framed between Dec.1946 & Dec.1949.
The Indian constitution came into effect on 26th Jan.1950.

The members of the constituent Assembly were elected on the basis of the provincial elections of 1946.
The total member of the constituent Assembly was 300.

Dr.B.R.Ambedkar was the chairman of the Drafting Committee, and played important role in the constituent Assembly.
on the the 13 Ced.1946 Nehru moved the “Objective Resolution” in the constituent Assembly.
An interim Government was made under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru.

There was a vigorous debate in the constituent Assembly on the topic of the central Government and the state.
The language issue was debated for many months within the constituent assembly.

Mahatma Gandhi believed that every one should talk a language which even common man could be able to understand


QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Q.1 Who did move the crucial ‘Objectives Resolution’? 2 Ans. The Crucial Resolution was moved by Jawaharlal Nehru.

Q.2 Why was the new constitution of Independent India introduced on 26 January 1950 ? 2 Ans. Because it was the 20th anniversary of the historical day on which the Congress had declared Complete Independence as its final goal.

Q.3 Which were the two main dissents of the Indian Constitution? 2 Ans. i) Its being written primarily in English.

ii) Requirement of no educational qualification for any of the post enshrined in it.

Q.4 When was the Drafting Committee formed? Who was its chairman? 2

Ans. The Drafting Committee was formed on 29 August 1947. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was its chairman.

Q.5 When and under which scheme the Constituent Assembly was formed ?
Ans. The Constituent Assembly was formed in October 1946 as per the Cabinet Mission Scheme.


83


Q.6When and under whose Presidentship the first session of all India StatesPeople’sConferencewasheld? 2

Ans. The first session of all India States People’s Conference was held in 1927 under the presidentship of Diwan Bahadur, M. Ramchan Rai the renowned leader of Ellore.
Q.7 Why did Mahatma Gandhi think Hindustani should be the National language?

Ans. By the 1950s, the Congress had accepted that Hindustani ought to be thenational language. Mahatma Gandhi felt that every one should speak in a language that common people could easily understand.

Hindustani - a blend of Hindi and Urdu - was a popular language of a large section of the people of India, and it was a composite language enriched by the interaction of diverse cultures. Over the years it had incorporated words

and terms from very many different sources, and was therefore understood by people from various regions. This multi - cultural language, Mahatma Gandhi thought would be the ideal language of communication between diverse communities: it could unify Hindus and Muslims, and people of the north and south.

Q8. Why is the Indian constitution acceptable to the Indian people even today? 4
Ans:

The Indian Constitution is acceptable to all because it was based on a broad consensus and did not reflect the views of the drafting committee alone.

Even though there was no universal adult Franchise at that time. The constituent assembly consisted of people of all regions and communities making it a miniature India.

Eminent people like Maulana Azad and women like Sarojini Naidu played an important part in the constituent assembly as did people of all casts and creeds.
Furthermore, the constituent assembly worked in a systematic and open manner.
The basic principles were agreed upon, then a draft constitution was prepared for discussion.

The draft constitution was discussed thoroughly clause by clause for nearly 3 years before being finalized.
Every individual is free to follow. Preach, or profess his/her own religion.
Q.9. How was the term minority defined by different groups? 4
Ans. The term minority was defined by different groups in the following ways:
i. Ambedkar demanded separate group for the minority races.

Hindus and Sikhs, live in so-called Pakistan were not considered as minority race.

Members demanded the representation on behalf of the minority in the Constitution.

Nagappa demanded minority status for the Harijans.
Ambedkar demanded separate Constitution for the minorities.

Q 10. What was the ‘language controversy, before the Constitution Assembly and how did it
seek to resolve the controversy? 4+4=8
Ans.
Language Controversy:


84


became politicized for communal identity.
R.V. Dhulkar supported Hindi to be made language of the Constitution.

It created a furor (debate) in the Constituent Assembly which was mediated by Pt. Jawahar lal Nehru.
Solutions:
Proceeded slow to make Hindi as the National Language.
Some supported official work to be continued for 15 years in English.

After implementation of the Constitution and Provinces to choose regional language for daily work.

Constituent Assembly: i. Hindi - Not National Language.
ii. But not Rajbhasha

Q.11 What was was the Objectives Resolution? What were the ideals expressed in the Objectives Resolution? 2+6=10

Ans. It was Jawaharlal Nehru, who presented Objectives Resolution in the Constituent Assembly on 13th December, 1946. He proposed that the National Flag of India be a ‘horizontal tricolour of saffron , white and dark green in equal proportion’, with a wheel in navy blue at the centre. It outlined and defined the ideals and objectives of the Constituitiion which are as follows:
India was declared as independent sovereign Republic.
It assured justice , equality, liberty and fraternity to all its citizens.
It provided adequate safeguards to minorities.

It referred to the well being of the backward and depressed classes.
India would combine the liberal ideas of democracy with socialist idea of economic Justice.
India would adopt that form of government which would be acceptable to its
people. No imposition from the British would be accepted by the Indian people.
India would be a federation.
India would work for world peace and human welfare.

Q. What were the arguments in favour of great power to the provinces?

Ans. In the Constituent Assembly, the rights of the states were mostly defended by K.Santhanam, a member from madras .He emphasized the need to strengthened the states. K.Santhanam was opposed to the centre being vested with more powers.

He felt that an over –burdened centre would not be able to fulfill its responsibilities in an effective manner.

The centre would become strong if all the states are made stronger.

He advocated that centre should be given less powers and stage should be given more powers.

K.Santhanam was not happy with the proposed allocation of powers between the centre and the states.

He fell that such a distribution of power would cripple the states.

Q. How was the centre made more powerful and strong by the Constituent Assembly?


85


Ans. Most of the members of the Constituent Assembly were in favour of strong central government of India.

Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru wanted a strong central as he felt , writing a letter to the President of the Constituent Assembly , that, “it would be injurious to the interests of the country to provide for a weak authority.” He was, in fact, convinced that only a strong central government could ensure peaces and stability.

The Union List contained more subjects that the state list.

Regarding the concurrent list , the centre and the state shared the responsibility . But in case of any disputes centre’s decision is recommended.


key industries

Q. Name any six leaders who played a very important role in the Constituent Assembly ?
Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru.
Dr.Rajendra Prasad

Sardar patel

Dr.B.R.Ambedkar

K.M.Munshi

Alladi Krishnaswami Aiyar.

Q 12. SOURCE BASED QUESTIONS –
Read the given passage carefully and answer the Questions that follow -

“Govind Ballabh Pant argued that in order to become a loyal citizen. People had focusing only on the community and the self. For the success of Democracy one must train himself in the art of self-discipline. In democracies one should care less for himself and more for others. There can not be any divided loyalty. All loyalties must exclusively be centred round the State. If in a democracy, you create rival loyalties, or you create a system in which any individual or group, instead of suppressing his extravagance, cares nought for larger or other interests, then democracy is doomed.’’

Q1. Give three attributes of a loyal citizen in a democracy according to G. B. Pant.
Ans. i) He must train himself in the art of self discipline.
ii) He should care less for himself and more for others.


Q2. What do you understand by ‘Separate Electorate’?2

Ans. Under provisions of the government of India Act, 1909. Separate electorates were made for the Muslims. Only Muslims could be elected from these constituencies. According to the British Administrators it was done in order to safe guard the interests of the Muslims minority.

Q3. Why was the demand for Separate Electorate made during the drafting of the Constitution? 2

Ans. Some members of the Constituent Assembly felt that a meaningful participation of the minorities in the governance could be ascertained only by the system of separate electorates.
They made a strong plea to continue this system.

86


Q4. Why was G. B. Pant against this demand? Give two reason. 2 Ans. Govind Ballabh Pant felt that -

If, by the system of the Separate Electorate, the minorities are isolated for ever, they can never be able to convert themselves into a majority.
The minorities, if they are returned by Separate Electorates, can never have any effective

voice in the governance