XII HISTORY THEME 2 'KINGS, FARMERS AND TOWNS'

XII HISTORY THEME-2

Kings, Farmers and Towns

Early States and Economies

( c. 600 BCE-600 CE )

1. Prinsep and Piyadassi
Discuss the contribution of James Princep in giving a new direction to history.
1.The most momentous developments in Indian epigraphy took place in the 1830s. This was when James Prinsep,
an officer in the mint of the East India Company, deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi, two scripts used in the earliest
inscriptions and coins.
2.He found that most of these mentioned a king referred to as Piyadassi – meaning “pleasant to behold”; there were a
few inscriptions which also referred to the king as Asoka, one of the most famous rulers known from Buddhist texts.
3.This gave a new direction to investigations into early Indian political history as European and Indian scholars used
inscriptions and texts composed in a variety of languages to reconstruct the lineages of major dynasties that had ruled
the subcontinent.
4.As a result, the broad contours of political history were in place by the early decades of the twentieth century.
5.Scholars began to shift their focus to the context of political history, investigating whether there were connections
between political changes and economic and social developments. It was soon realised that while there were
links, these were not always simple or direct.
2. The Earliest States
2.1 The sixteen mahajanapadas
``The sixth century BCE is often regarded as a major turning point in early Indian
history.`` Discuss
1. It is an era associated with early states, cities, the growing use of iron, the development of coinage, etc. Italso witnessed the growth of diverse systems of thought, including Buddhism and Jainism. Early Buddhist and Jaina texts mention, amongst other things, sixteen states known as mahajanapadas.
2. Although the lists vary, some names such as Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara and Avanti occur frequently. Clearly, these were amongst the most important mahajanapadas.
3.While most mahajanapadas were ruled by kings, some, known as ganas or sanghas, were oligarchies where power was shared by a number of men, often collectively called rajas. Both Mahavira and the Buddha belonged to such ganas.
4.In some instances, as in the case of the Vajji sangha, the rajas probably controlled resources such as land collectively. Although their histories are often difficult to reconstruct due to the lack of sources, some of these states lasted for nearly a thousand years.
5.Each mahajanapada had a capital city, which was often fortified. Maintaining these fortified cities as well as providing for incipient armies and bureaucracies required resources. From c. sixth century BCE onwards, Brahmanas began composing Sanskrit texts known as the Dharmasutras. These laid down norms for rulers (as well as for other social categories), who were ideally expected to be Kshatriyas (see also Chapter 3). Rulers were advised to collect taxes and tribute from cultivators, traders and artisans. Were resources also procured from pastoralists and forest peoples? We do not really know. What we do know is that raids on neighbouring states were recognised as a legitimate means of acquiring wealth. Gradually, some states acquired standing armies and maintained regular bureaucracies. Others continued to depend on militia, recruited, more often than not, from the peasantry. where states and cities were most densely clustered?
2.2 First amongst the sixteen: Magadha
Magadha was the most powerful mahajanapada between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE.
.Between the sixth and the fourth centuries BCE, Magadha became the most powerful mahajanapada and modern historians explain this development in a variety of ways:
1.Magadha was a region where agriculture was especially productive.
2.Iron mines were accessible and provided resources for tools and weapons.
3. Elephants, an important component of the army, were found in forests in the region.
4.The Ganga and its tributaries provided a means of cheap and convenient communication.
5.Early Buddhist and Jaina writers who wrote about Magadha attributed its power to the policies of individuals: ruthlessly ambitious kings of whom Bimbisara, Ajatasattu and Mahapadma Nanda are the best known, and their ministers, who helped implement their policies.
CON. Rajagaha was a fortified settlement, located amongst hills. Later, in the fourth century BCE, the capital was shifted to Pataliputra, present-day Patna, commanding routes of communication along the Ganga.
3. An Early Empire
3.3 How important was the empire?
When historians began reconstructing early Indian history in the nineteenth century, the emergence of the Mauryan Empire was regarded as a major landmark.
1. India was then under colonial rule, and was part of the British empire. Nineteenth and early twentieth century Indian historians found the possibility that there was an empire in early India both challenging and exciting.
2.Some of the archaeological finds associated with the Mauryas, including stone sculpture, were considered to be examples of the spectacular art typical of empires.
3.Many of these historians found the message on Asokan inscriptions very different from that of most other rulers, suggesting that Asoka was more powerful and industrious, as also more humble than later rulers who adopted grandiose titles. So it is not surprising that nationalist leaders in the twentieth century regarded him as an inspiring figure.
4.Yet,we do not have a clear picture about how important the Mauryan Empire was as it lasted for about 150 years,
which is not a very long time in the vast span of the history of the subcontinent.
5. Besides we notice that the empire did not include the entire subcontinent. And even within the frontiers of the empire, control was not uniform. By the second century BCE, new chiefdoms and kingdoms emerged in several parts of the subcontinent.
. Explain the evidences of craft production in Early Historic cities. In what ways is this different from
the evidences from Harappan Cities
1. The towns of Harappa have been widely excavated. From excavations, we have found evidences about the Harappan craftsmanship. Contrary to it, the excavation of the early historical towns is not possible because in these regions, the people still live. Even then, we have found a wide range of artefacts. There are certainly other evidences of things produced by the craftsmen.
The craft production in early towns :
(i) From these sites, fine pottery bowls and dishes have been found. They had a glossy finish. They were known as Northern Black Polished Ware. They were probably used by the rich people.
(ii) There have also been evidences of ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels and figurines. There were also a wide range of things which were made of gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell and terracotta.
(iii) The donor inscriptions tell us that the washermen, weavers, scribes, carpenters,
potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths, officials and religious teachers lived in these towns. The blacksmiths made things from iron. There are no evidences of iron in the towns of Harappa.
(iv) The craft producers and merchants had formed their guilds or shrenis. They bought the raw material. Then they went in for regulated production. In the end they marketed the finished goods.
Describe the salient features of Mahajanapadas.
Ans. In the early texts of Buddhism and Jainism, we find a mention of sixteen states under the name of Mahajanapadas. Though the names of the all these Mahajanapadas are not uniform in these books yet the names of Vajji, Magadha, Kaushal, Kuru, Panchal, Gandhar and other are alike. It indicates that all these Mahajanapadas must have been very important.
Main Characteristics : The main features of the Mahajanapadas are as follows:
(i) Most of the Mahajanapadas were ruled by a king. But a group of people ruled those states which were known as a Republic. Every person of this group was called a king. Lord Mahavira and Lord Buddha had relation with this Republics. Like the Republics of Vajji, in some other states, the king and the people had a collective control over economic resources.
(ii) Every Mahajanapada had its own capital. It was often surrounded by a fort. The fortification of the capital was needed for the maintenance of the capital, border forces and economic resources for the officials.
(iii) Approximately in the 6th century BCE, the Brahmans started composing a religious book in Sanskrit called Dharamshastras. In it, the rules were determined for all social sections including king. It was also expected that. all the rulers should be Khastriyas.
(iv) The main job of the rulers was to collect tax from the farmers, merchants and craftsmen. They also accepted offerings.
(v) It was legitimate to attack the neighboring countries to raise money from them
(vi) Slowly and steadily, some status started keeping their regular armed forces and other officials. The other states were still dependent on assistant armies. The soldiers were often recruited from the farmers.
. Write about the Dhamma of Asoka
Ans. Asoka framed some moral precepts for the moral upliftment and ethical emancipation of the people of his times. The accumulation of these maxims is called as Dhamma. The basic principles of the Dhamma of Asoka were as under:
(i) The main principle of Asoka was to respect the elders. According to him, all the pupils must respect their teachers (Gurus). All should respect the Saints, Brahmans and elderly people.
(ii) According to the Dhamma of Asoka, all the elderly persons should respect members of the family,
relatives, servants, the poor and the slaves.
(iii) Everyone has to face the ordeal in his next birth for all his evil deeds. So all should perform pious deeds.
(iv) Non-violence was the cardinal principle of Asoka’s Dhamma. According to it, no one should hurt
anyone with words, deeds and thoughts.
(v) All should analyse their actions from time to time.
(vi) Envy, anger, pride and untruth are all evils. All the people should remain away from them.
.What is the place of Asoka in history?
Ans. Asoka is not only a great king of India but also of the whole world. It is because of the following reasons:
(i) After the war of Kalinga, Asoka adopted service of mankind as one of the main principles of his life. He engaged himself in spreading the religious and ethical gospel of Mahatma Buddha. No other great ruler of the world made such a sacrifice for the common people.
(ii) Asoka considered his subjects as his children. He did a lot for the widows and the orphans.
(iii) Asoka spread Buddhism in all the corners of the world. He is called The Great because he took up a small religion and turned it into a global one. The world came to know about Buddhism only because of the inscriptions of Asoka.
(iv) Asoka was a tolerant ruler. He respected all the religions.
(v) Asoka was the first who got opened hospitals even for the animals.
Discuss the main features of Mauryan administration. Which of these elements are evident in the Asokan inscriptions that you have studied.
Ans. Asokan inscriptions mention all the main features, of Mauryan administration like king subjects
relationships political centres important officers and their duties etc Same sort of massages were engraved on inscriptions found in western frontier province of modern Pakistan, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa,Ujjain and other places. Some of the main features evident in the Asokan inscriptions and few others are given below:
(i) Five main Political Centres: Largest political centre of Mauryan empire was capital itself Patliputra. Except this there is mention of four provincial centers in Asokan inscriptions . These four centers were Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri.
(ii)Unequal Administrative System: Mauryan empire was quite large. Included areas in the empire were of different types like mountainous region of Afghanistan and coastal areas of Orrisa. It was not possible to establish an equal or same administrative system in such a diverse empire. But probably strict administrative control could have been there in capital of empire and other provincial centres.
(iii) Selection of Provincial Centres : Provincial centres were selected very carefully. Taxila and Ujjayini were situated on important trading routes of long journey. Suvarnagiri was important for the gold mines of Karnataka.
(iv) Providing easy communication : Communication along both land and riverine routes was vital for the existence of empire. It took weaks or months to reach provinces from the capital. It is obvious that arrangement of diet and protection of people moving through the routes could have been an important issue.
(v) Committee and Sub Committees : Megasthenes mentioned about one committee and six subcommittees for coordinating military activities.
(a) First sub-committee looked after the navy.
(b) The second managed transport and provisions.
(c) The third sub-committee was responsible for infantry.
(d) The fourth was responsible for horses, the fifth for chariots and sixth for elephants.
Activities of second sub-committee were little bit varied. It arranged for bullock carts to carry equipments, procuring fodder for animals and food for soldiers and recruiting artisans and servants to look after the soldiers.
(vi) Appointment of Dhamma Mahamatras : Asoka tried to maintain unity in his empire. He also done this by propagating Dhamma. Concepts of Dhamma were very simple and universal. He was of the view that obeying the Dhamma will be good for people in this world and beyond this world. That’s why special officers called Dhamma Mahamatras were appointed. This thing is also mentioned in inscriptions.
. This is a statement made by one of the best known epigraphists of the twentieth century, D.C.
Sircar :
‘There is no aspect of life, culture and activities of the Indians that is not reflected in
inscriptions.” Discuss.
Ans. A famous exponent of inscriptions, D.C. Sircar has rightly said that the inscriptions present a glimpse of every aspect of the Indian life. Regarding it, many examples can be cited, a few of which are as follows:
(i) Determination of State Expansion: From the inscriptions, we come to know a lot about the expansion of states by kings. The ancient kings got installed the inscriptions within the borders of their states. Hence the areas where inscriptions were found are believed to be the part of his state.
(ii) Names of Kings : From the inscriptions, we also come to know about the names of various kings. Earlier we were unable to know these names from any other source. For example, many titles like Devanampiya (beloved of the Gods) and Piyadassi (pleasant to behold) were used for king Asoka. All these names are known from the inscriptions installed by him.
(iii) Information about Historical Events We also know a lot about historical events from the inscriptions
All the major events in the life of Samudragupta can be known from Allahabad Prashasti. The inscriptions of Asoka throw a great light on the Kalinga war and its grave consequences. Similarly we know a lot about the ups and downs in the life of Chandragupta Vikramditya, Raja Bhoj, Pulkeshin II from various inscriptions.
(iv) Information about the Character of Kings : The inscriptions also present a glimpse about the
character of the kings. They tell us that Asoka was a lover of his subjects. He did a lot for their welfare. All the inscriptions prove him to be king, protector of animals and lover of the family system. Allahabad Prashasti presents Samudragupta as a great
(v) Information About Land Systems and Administration. There are many important inscriptions which tell us about the land donated by the kings and the samants. They provide a useful information about the system and administration of land in the ancient India. Most of these inscriptions were written on copper plates. They are found in almost all the ancient languages. They give a detailed information about the villages, land and revenue given to the beggars, Brahmans, Temples, jagirdars and officials.
(vi) Time Line : The inscriptions contribute a lot in determining the historical dates and periods of war. We can determine their time from the script and style of writing on the inscriptions.
(vii) Information about Historical Literature : From the language of the inscriptions we come to know
about the level of literature. We also come to know in which parts of the country were spoken languages like Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, Tamil and Telugu. The inscriptions also tell us about the status of these languages in the country.
(viii) Information about languages and religion : The language of the inscriptions informs us about the religions of those times. In ancient times, Sanskrit language was identified with the Hinduism. Similarly Prakrit language was associated with the Buddhism.
(ix) Information about love for art : The inscriptions have been prepared by engraving stones and caves, they tell us about the love for art. The inscriptions of Asoka are the model of excellence of the Mauryan period.
(x) Information about Social Classes : The inscriptions tell us a lot about the social classes of those times.We come to know that during those times, there were not only the ruling class but also weavers, goldsmiths, washer men, ironsmiths, traders and farmers.
Thus we see that all the inscriptions were the mirror of the Indian life and culture.
. Briefly describe the administration (Civil and Military) of Chandragupta Maurya.
. Chandragupta Maura was not only a brave soldier but was an efficient administrator. He efficiently
administered central government, provincial government and local administration. He did a lot for public welfare. He gave proper attention not only to civil works but to military organisation. Brief description of his administration is given below :-
I. Central Administration: (i) King : Head of the state was king who had unlimited powers. He was the general of military who used to control and regulate the military. He himself used tà take care of
administrative works.
(ii) Council of Ministers : There was a Council of Ministers for giving help and advice to the king. But king was not bound to accept the advice of council. Ministers were given different departments. Certain other officials were there like Amatya, Mahamatra etc.
II. Provincial Administration : (i) Four Provinces : Whole of the empire was divided into four provinces called Central province, Western province, North-Western province and Southern province.
(ii) Kumar : Head of the province was known as Kumar. Generally this post was given to any member of
royal family. His main function was to maintain peace and security in the province.
III. City Administration : (i) Nagar Adhyaksh : City was under the control of Nagar Adhyaksh. His main
job was to maintain peace in the city, collection of taxes and arrangement of education. Two officers called
‘Sthanik’ and ‘Gope’ were there for his help.
(ii) Arrangement of larger cities : Boards were established for the administration of larger cities like
Pataliputra, Taxila and Ujjayani. Every board had 30 members and boards were further divided into 6
committees of 5 members each. Following were the main functions of these boards
(a) First committee used to protect the interests of craftsmen. Their salary was also fixed by this committee.
(b) Second committee used to take care of foreigners.
(c) Third committee used to maintain record of births and deaths.
(d) Fourth committee used to encourage the trade and used to make rules for traders.
(e) Fifth committee used to inspect the finished goods.
(f) Main function of sixth committee was to collect sales tax.
Functions of public welfare like education, hospitals, temples etc. were done by all of them collectively.
IV. Village Administration : Administration of village was in the hands of Panchayats whose head was known as ‘Gramik’ or ‘Gramini’. There was an official called ‘Gopa’ for 10 villages. Functions of Panchayats were hardly interfered by central government.
V. Judicial System: (a) Different Courts : The topmost authority of justice was himself the king. There were two types of courts—civil and criminal.
(b) Punishments : There were strict punishments under Mauryan rule. Fines were imposed for smaller
crimes. Death penalty was given to theft, decoity and murders.
VI. Espionage Department Chandragupta Maurya had established an espionage department for the
consolidation of empire. These people used to take care of all the places of empire. Some used to move here and there to collect information. Females were also engaged in espionage department.
VII. Public Welfare Functions: Chandragupta Maurya kept special care for interests of the masses. He
properly arranged for irrigation facilities for progress of agriculture. He made roads for the progress of trade and facilities of the people.
VIII. Military Administration : He organised such a large army which included 6 lakh foot-soldiers, 30 thousand cavalry, 9 thousand elephants and 8 thousand chariots. He also appointed a committee of 30 members for regulation of such a large army.
IX. Finance and Land Revenue System: Chandragupta Maurya appointed an official ‘called ‘Samahartta’ whose main job was to increase the income of the state. Land revenue was main source of income; One-sixth of total produce was taken as land revenue. Except this octroi was also collected from trading goods. Actually he was an able and efficient administrator. He, with the help of his prime minister Chanakya, founded an ideal administration. According to Dr. V.A. Smith, “No similar organisation is recorded elsewhere.”
 Which are the main sources of Mauryan history? Describe
Ans. Maurya dynasty is the first dynasty of India about which we have correct and enough historical
information. It tied whole of India into a thread of unity. This dynasty was founded by Chandragupta
Maurya. We get this information from various sources which are given below:
(i) Description of Megasthenes : Megasthenes was a Greek resident. He remained an ambassador of
Seleukas in the court of Chandragupta Maurya from 302 BCE to 298 BCE. He wrote a book called
‘INDICA’ in which he wrote about the Mauryan ruler, his administration and social condition of that age.
Yet, now this book is not available but still some of the description of his book is available in few Greek and other books. We can clearly get information about Mauryan empire by collecting all these descriptions.
(ii) Arthashastra of Kautilya : Kautilya (Chanakya) was the teacher and prime minister of Chandragupta Maurya. Kautilya wrote an epic called ‘Arthashastra’. He wrote about political theories in his book. Kautilya
wrote that, “King should run the administration with the help of his ministers even if he is an autocratic ruler. Actually Chandragupta used his political concepts and became a successful king. Proper analysis of Kautilya’s Arthashastra gives us enough information about administration and society under Mauryan rule.
(iii) Mudrarakshas : It is an historical play written in fifth century. It was written by famous writer of Guta age, Vishakhdutt. This play tells us that how Nanda dynasty was destroyed by Chandragupta Maurya and how he founded Mauryan empire.
(iv) Epics of Jainism and Buddhism: Jain and Buddhist literature also give us enough information about Mauryan age. We can take ‘Mahavams’, ‘Dipavams’ and ‘Mahabodhivamas’ for this purpose. Kalpasutra of Jainism can also be used in this regard. Jam literature tells us that Chandragupta Maurya became a follower of Jainism in last days of his rule. Buddhist literature informs us that Asoka was very cruel during his early age but became very kind when he adopted Buddhism.
(v) Puranas: Puranas also give us enough information about Mauryan age. They inform us that Nanda rulers were Shudras. Chanakya destroyed them and made Chandragupta as the new king. But modern scholars are of the view that many things written in Puranas could have been imaginary.
(vi) Other Sources : (a) Asoka engraved descriptions on caves, inscriptions and rocks in his empire. These descriptions give us enough information about his administration, religious policy, Mauryan age and character of Asoka.
(b) Coins issued by Mauryan rulers also proved to be vital source of Mauryan history.
 Discuss reasons for the decline or downfall of the Mauryan empire.
Ans. The Mauryan empire declined on account of the following reasons:
(i) Incapable Inheritors. After Asoka, the reins of reign went in the hands of rulers like Dasrath, Samprati and Brahdrath. All these rulers were incompetent to govern.
(ii) Vast Empire. The Maurayan empire had witnessed a phenomenal expansion during the reign of Asoka.However those who inherited his legacy proved to be very weak rulers They failed to protect the vastempire.There was no specific law of succession in the other to get the way to throne. Asoka himself had killed his99 brothers to get an access to the throne. The Mauryan power became very weak due to such civil wars.
(iv) Internal In cohesion :After the death of Asoka, there was an internal rebellion in the empire. Many provincial governors had declared themselves as independent. Consequently the Mauryan empire started crumbling.
(v) Lack of Money. Money is very important in the governance of a state. But Asoka spent generously in preaching and spieading Buddhism. He also spent a lot on public welfare activities. As a result, there was no money in the royal treasury. It loosened the grip on the administration. The subsequent rulers failed to nip the rebellion because of lack of money in the treasury.
(vi) Atrocities by the officials. In the remote and distant villages of the Mauryan empire, the administration was not good. The government officials committed a lot of atrocities on the common people. Their atrocities increased so much that in many areas, the people revolted against these officials.
(vii) Lack of Military Power. After the Kalinga war, Asoka made up his mind not to wage any war in
future. He renounced war. So he thd not give much attention to strengthen his army. As a result, the
Mauryan power was on a decline.
(viii) Foreign Aggressions. Finding the Mauryan empire as weak and cumbling, the foreign invaders started attacking the border areas of the empire. They gave a strong jolt to the Mauryan power. In this way, Mauryan empire declined slowly and steadily.
(ix) Enmity of Brahmans:The Hinduism witnessed a great decline during the reign of Asoka. The
Brahmans could ‘not tolerate it. So they became antagonistic towards the Mauryan empire. At last, the last ruler for the Mauryan empire was murdered by a Brahman commander. Hence the Mauryan empire completely declined.
4. New Notions of Kingship
Who were the new chiefs and kings who emerged in the south between 600 BCE and
600 BC?
4.1 Chiefs and kings in the south
1.The new kingdoms that emerged in the Deccan and further south, including the chiefdoms of the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas in Tamilakam proved to be stable and prosperous.
2.We know about these states from a variety of sources. For instance, the early Tamil Sangam texts contain poems describing chiefs and the ways in which they acquired and distributed resources.
3.Many chiefs and kings, including the Satavahanas who ruled over parts of western and
central India and the Shakas, a people of Central Asian origin who established kingdoms in the north-western and western parts of the subcontinent, derived revenues from long-distance trade.
4.Their social origins were often not clear but, as we will see in the case of the Satavahanas , once they acquired power they attempted to claim social status in a variety of ways.
Capturing elephants for the army The Arthashastra lays down minute details of administrative and military organisation. This is what it says about how to capture elephants:
Guards of elephant forests, assisted by those who rear elephants, those who enchain the legs of elephants, those who guard the boundaries, those who live in forests, as well as by those who nurse elephants, shall, with the help of five or seven female elephants to help in tethering wild ones, trace the whereabouts of herds of elephants by following the course of urine and dung left by elephants. According to Greek sources, the Mauryan ruler had a standing army of 600,000 foot-soldiers,
30,000 cavalry and 9,000 elephants. Some historians consider these accounts to be exaggerated.
4.2 Divine kings
1.One means of claiming high status was to identify with a variety of deities. Kushana`s history has been reconstructed from inscriptions and textual traditions and the notions of kingship they wished to project are perhaps best evidenced in their coins and sculpture.
2.Colossal statues of Kushana rulers have been found installed in a shrine at Mat near Mathura and in
Afghanistan . Some historians feel this and they indicate that the Kushanas considered themselves godlike. Many Kushana rulers also adopted the title devaputra, or “son of god”
3.By the fourth century there is evidence of larger states, including the Gupta Empire. Many of these
depended on samantas, men who maintained themselves through local resources including control over land. They offered homage and provided military support to rulers.
4. Powerful samantas could become kings: on the other side , weak rulers might find themselves being reduced to positions of subordination.
5.Histories of the Gupta rulers have been reconstructed from literature, coins and inscriptions, including prashastis, composed in praise of kings in particular, and patrons in general, by poets. While historians often attempt to draw factual information from such compositions, those who composed and read them often treasured them as works of poetry
5. A Changing Countryside
5.1 Popular perceptions of kings
What did subjects think about their rulers during 600 BCE and 600 BC?
OR
Discuss the Jatakas and Panchtantra stories in reference to the popular perceptions that ordinary people had about their kings.
INTRO:. Obviously, inscriptions do not provide all the answers. In fact, ordinary people rarely left accounts of their thoughts and experiences.
1.Historians have tried to solve this problem by examining stories contained in anthologies such as the Jatakas and the Panchatantra. Many of these stories probably originated as popular oral tales that were later committed to writing. The Jatakas were written in Pali around the middle of the first millennium CE.
2.One story known as the Gandatindu Jataka describes the plight of the subjects of a wicked king; these included elderly women and men, cultivators, herders, village boys and even animals.
3.When the king went in disguise to find out what his subjects thought about him, each one of them cursed him for their miseries, complaining that they were attacked by robbers at night and by tax collectors during the day. To escape from this situation, people abandoned their village and went to live in the forest.
4.As this story indicates, the relationship between a king and his subjects, especially the rural population, could often be strained – kings frequently tried to fill their coffers by demanding high taxes, and peasants particularly found such demands oppressive.
5. Escaping into the forest remained an option, as reflected in the Jataka story. Meanwhile, other strategies aimed at increasing production to meet growing demand for taxes also came to be adopted.
5.3 Differences in rural society
While technologies often led to an increase in production, the benefits were very uneven. Comment
1.It is evident is that there was a growing differentiation amongst people engaged in agriculture – stories, especially within the Buddhist tradition, refer to landless agricultural labourers, small peasants, as well as large landholders.
2.The term gahapati was often used in Pali texts to designate the second and third categories.
3.The large landholders, as well as the village headman (whose position was often hereditary), emerged as powerful figures, and often exercised control over other cultivators.
4.Early Tamil literature (the Sangam texts) also mentions different categories of people living in the villages
– large landowners or vellalar, ploughmen or uzhavar and slaves or adimai.
5.It is likely that these differences were based on differential access to land, labour and some of the new technologies. In such a situation, questions of control over land must have become crucial, as these were often discussed in legal texts.
5.4 Land grants and new rural elites
What was the system of land grants? Discuss with reference to source and how did the
system lead to emergence of new rural elites.
From the early centuries of the Common Era, we find grants of land being made, many of which were recorded in inscriptions.
1. Some of these inscriptions were on stone, but most were on copper plates which were probably given as a record of the transaction to those who received the land.
2.The records that have survived are generally about grants to religious institutions or to Brahmanas. Most inscriptions were in Sanskrit. In some cases, and especially from the seventh century onwards, part of the inscription was in Sanskrit, while the rest was in a local language such as Tamil or Telugu.
Let us look at one such inscription more closely.
3.Prabhavati Gupta was the daughter of one of the most important rulers in early Indian history, Chandragupta II. She was married into another important ruling family, that of the Vakatakas, who were powerful in the Deccan . According
to Sanskrit legal texts, women were not supposed to have independent access to resources such as land.
4.However, the inscription indicates that Prabhavati had access to land, which she then granted. This may have been because she was a queen one of the few known from early Indian history, and her situation was therefore exceptional.
It is also possible that the provisions of legal texts were not uniformly implemented.
5.The inscription also gives us an idea about rural populations – these included Brahmanas and peasants, as well as others who were expected to provide a range of produce to the king or his representatives. And according to the inscription, they would have to obey the new lord of the village, and perhaps pay him all these dues.
6.There were regional variations in the sizes of land donated – ranging from small plots to vast stretches of  uncultivated land – and the rights given to the recipients of the grant.
7. The impact of land grants is a subject of heated debate among historians. Some feel that land grants were part of a strategy adopted by ruling lineages to extend agriculture to new areas.
8.Others suggest that land grants were indicative of weakening political power: as kings were losing control over their samantas, they tried to win allies by making grants of land. They also feel that kings tried to project themselves as supermen because they were losing control: they wanted to present at least a façade of power.
9.Land grants provide some insight into the relationship between cultivators and the state. However, there were people who were often beyond the reach of officials or samantas: pastoralists, fisherfolk and hunter gatherers, mobile or semisedentary artisans and shifting cultivators.
6. Towns and Trade
6.1 New cities

Urban centres emerged in several parts of the subcontinent from c. sixth century BCE., many of these werecapitals of mahajanapadas. All major towns were located along routes of communication. Some such asPataliputra were on riverine routes. Others, such as Ujjayini, were along land routes, and yet others, such asPuhar, were near the coast, from where sea routes began. Many cities like Mathura were bustling centres of commercial, cultural and political activity.
6.2 Urban populations:
Elites and craftsperson
1.Kings and ruling elites lived in fortified cities. Although it is difficult to conduct extensive excavations at most sites because people live in these areas even today
2A wide range of artefacts have been recovered from them. These include fine pottery bowls and dishes, with a glossy finish, known as Northern Black Polished Ware, used by rich people, and ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, figurines, made of a wide range of materials – gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell and terracotta.
3.By the second century BCE, we find short votive inscriptions in a number of cities. These mention the name of the donor, and sometimes specify his/ her occupation as well.
4.They tell us about people who lived in towns: washing folk, weavers, scribes, carpenters, potters,
goldsmiths, blacksmiths, officials, religious teachers, merchants and kings.
5.Sometimes, guilds or shrenis, organisations of craft producers and merchants, are mentioned as well. These guilds probably procured raw materials, regulated production, and marketed the finished product. It is likely that craftspersons used a range of iron tools to meet the growing demands of urban elites.
6.3 Trade in the subcontinent and beyond
1.From the sixth century BCE, land and river routes criss-crossed the subcontinent and extended in various directions – overland into Central Asia and beyond, and overseas, from ports that dotted the coastline – extending across the Arabian Sea to East and North Africa and West Asia, and through the Bay of Bengal to Southeast Asia and China.
2.Rulers often attempted to control these routes, possibly by offering protection for a price. Those who traversed these routes included peddlers who probably travelled on foot and merchants who travelled with caravans of bullock carts and pack-animals.
3. Also, there were seafarers, whose ventures were risky but highly profitable. Successful merchants,
designated as masattuvan in Tamil and setthis and satthavahas in Prakrit, could become enormously rich.
4. A wide range of goods were carried from one place to another – salt, grain, cloth, metal ores and finished products, stone, timber, medicinal plants, to name a few.
5.Spices, especially pepper, were in high demand in the Roman Empire, as were textiles and medicinal plants, and these were all transported across the Arabian Sea to the Mediterranean.
6.4 Coins and kings
``Exchanges were facilitated by the introduction of coinage. `` Discuss with reference to
period 600 BCE -600BC
1.Punch-marked coins made of silver and copper (c. sixth century BCE onwards) were amongst the earliest to be minted and used. These have been recovered from excavations at a number of sites throughout the subcontinent.
Numismatists have studied these and other coins to reconstruct possible commercial networks.
2.Attempts made to identify the symbols on punchmarked coins with specific ruling dynasties, including the Mauryas, suggest that these were issued by kings. It is also likely that merchants, bankers and townspeople issued some of these coins.
3.The first coins to bear the names and images of rulers were issued by the Indo-Greeks, who established control over the north-western part of the subcontinent . The first gold coins were issued by the Kushanas.
4. These were virtually identical in weight with those issued by contemporary Roman emperors and the Parthian rulers of Iran, and have been found from several sites in north India and Central Asia.
5.The widespread use of gold coins indicates the enormous value of the transactions that were taking place. Besides, hoards of Roman coins have been found from archaeological sites in south India. It is obvious that networks of trade were not confined within political boundaries: south India was not part of the Roman Empire, but there were close connections through trade.
6.Coins were also issued by tribal republics such as that of the Yaudheyas of Punjab and Haryana . Archaeologists have unearthed several thousand copper coins issued by the Yaudheyas, pointing to the latter’s interest and participation in economic exchanges.
7. Some of the most spectacular gold coins were issued by the Gupta rulers. The earliest issues are remarkable for their purity. These coins facilitated long-distance transactions from which kings also benefited. From c. sixth century CE onwards, finds of gold coins taper off. Does this indicate that there was some kind of an economic crisis?
8. Historians are divided on this issue. Some suggest that with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire long distance trade declined, and this affected the prosperity of the states, communities and regions that had benefited from it.
9.Others argue that new towns and networks of trade started emerging around this time.
They also point out that though finds of coins of that time are fewer, coins continue to be mentioned in inscriptions and texts. Could it be that there are fewer finds because coins were in circulation rather than being hoarded?
7. Back to Basics
How Are Inscriptions Deciphered?
So far, we have been studying excerpts from inscriptions amongst other things. But how do historians find out what is written on them?
7.1 Deciphering Brahmi
. How Brahmi Script, of Asokan age, was deciphered?
1. Most of the scripts used to write modern Indian languages are defined from Brahmi script. This script was used in most of Asokan inscriptions. From late 18th century, European scholars, helped by Indian pandits, worked backward from contemporary Bengali and Devanagri.
2.Scholars who studied early inscriptions thought that these inscriptions were in Sanskrit but the earliest inscriptions were in Prakrit. After decades of great hard work by many epigraphers, James Princep deciphered the Asokan age
Brahmi script in 1838.
7.2 How Kharosthi was read
How Kharosthi script was read?
1. There is an interesting story of decipherment of Kharosthi script which was used in inscriptions in the north east. Indo-Greek kings ruled over the area in second-first centuries BCE. They minted the coins and these found coins solved the matter. Names of kings written on these coins were in Greek and Kharosthi scripts.
2. European scholars compared the letters who could read the Greek. For example the symbol of ‘a’ was used in both scripts for writing names like Apollodotus. Because James Princep identified the language of Kharosthi as Prakrit, it become possible to read inscriptions as well.
7.3 Historical evidence from inscriptions
What historical evidence do we get from inscriptions of the period 600 BCE TO 600 CE?
OR
``Epigraphists and historians worked closely together at Asokan inscriptions .`` Justify
To find out how epigraphists and historians work, we take an example of two Asokan inscriptions more closely.
1.The name of the ruler, Asoka, is not mentioned in the inscription . What is used instead are titles adopted by the ruler – devanampiya, often translated as “beloved of the gods” and piyadassi, or “pleasant to behold”. The name Asoka is mentioned in some other inscriptions, which also contain these titles.
2.After examining all these inscriptions, and finding that they match in terms of content, style, language and palaeography, epigraphists have concluded that they were issued by the same ruler.
3.It was noticed that Asoka claims that earlier rulers had no arrangements to receive reports. If we consider the political history of the subcontinent prior to Asoka then do you think this statement is true?
4.Historians have to constantly assess statements made in inscriptions to judge whether they are true,
plausible or exaggerations. Epigraphists sometimes add these to make the meaning of sentences clear. This has to be done carefully, to ensure that the intended meaning of the author is not changed.
5.Historians have to make other assessments as well. If a king’s orders were inscribed on natural rocks near cities or important routes of communication, would passers-by have stopped to read these? Most people were probably not literate.
6.Did everybody throughout the subcontinent understand the Prakrit used in Pataliputra? Would the orders of the king have been followed? Answers to such questions are not always easy to find.
7.Some of problems are evident if we look at an Asokan inscription , these are difficult to solve as reading an inscription is a complex issue ,which has often been interpreted as reflecting the anguish of the ruler, as well as marking a change in his attitude towards warfare. As we shall see, the situation becomes more complex once we move beyond reading the inscription at face value.
8.While Asokan inscriptions have been found in present-day Orissa, the one depicting his anguish is missing. In other words, the inscription has not been found in the region that was conquered. What are we to make of that? Is it that the anguish of the recent conquest was too painful in the region, and therefore the ruler was unable to address the issue?
List some of the problems faced by epigraphists.
Or
Give any two limitations of inscriptional evidence to construct the past.
Ans. The scholars who study the inscriptions were often very wise people. They faced the following problems:
(i) Sometimes the words are engraved in very light colours. It is very hard to decipher them.
(ii) Sometimes the inscriptions are damaged. Many words are lost due to their damage.
(iii) It is always not easy to find out the real meaning of the inscription. Sometimes the things are stated in relevance to a particular situation or time.
(iv) Thousands of inscriptions have been found. But not all of them can be translated or understood.
(v) There might have been many more inscriptions. It is possible that many of them would have been damaged. These inscriptions which are available may be a part of many more which have already been damaged.
(vi) There is another basic problem. What is important today both politically and economically may not have been mentioned in the inscriptions. For example, the inscriptions do not refer to agriculture and the joys or sorrows of daily life. They describe only special and grand occasions.
(vii) The inscriptions reflect the views of those who write them. So we must critically analyse all the inscriptions to find out the ultimate truth.
MAP QUESTION ITEMS:
On the given political map of India mark and name the following kingdoms:
Shakas, Vakatakas, Satvahanas, Guptas, Magadha, Kushanas and Cholas, Magadha, Avanti, Vatsa, Kuru and Panchala, Taxila, kanauj ,Varansi, Rajgir, Bharukachchha, Puhar , Ujjayani,
Kandhar, Kalsi, Topra, Girnar, Sopara, Shishupalgarh, Sannati

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